What Is the Lead?
The lead (that’s how journalists spell it) is the first paragraph of any news story. It’s also the most important. The lede must accomplish several things:
give readers the main points of the story
get readers interested in reading the story
accomplish both “a” and “b” in as few words as possible
Typically editors want ledes to be no longer than 35-40 words. Why so short? Readers want their news delivered quickly. A short lede does just that.
What Goes in the Lede?Journalists use the five “W’s and the H” – Who, What, Where, When, Why and How.
Who – who is the story about?
What – what is the story about?
Where – where did the event you’re writing about occur?
When – when did it occur?
Why – why did this happen?
How – how did this happen?
Example:Let’s say you’re writing a story about a man who was injured when he fell off a ladder. Here are your five W’s and H:
Who – the man
What – he fell off a ladder while painting
Where – at his house
When – yesterday
Why – the ladder was rickety
How – the rickety ladder broke
So your lede might go something like this:
A man was injured yesterday when he fell off a rickety ladder that collapsed while he was painting his house.
Tuesday, August 10, 2010
The History of Communication
TIMELINE
BC
3500 BCto 2900 BC
The Phoenicians develop an alphabet.The Sumerians develop cuneiform writing - pictographs of accounts written on clay tablets.The Egyptians develop hieroglyphic writing.
1775 BC
Greeks use a phonetic alphabet written from left to right.
1400 BC
Oldest record of writing in China on bones.
1270 BC
The first encyclopedia is written in Syria.
900 BC
The very first postal service - for government use in China.
776 BC
First recorded use of homing pigeons used to send message - the winner of the Olympic Games to the Athenians.
530 BC
The Greeks start the very first library.
500 BC to 170 BC
Papyrus rolls and early parchments made of dried reeds - first portable and light writing surfaces.
200 BCto 100 BC
Human messengers on foot or horseback common in Egypt and China with messenger relay stations built.Sometimes fire messages used from relay station to station instead of humans.
AD
14
Romans establish postal services.
37
Heliographs - first recorded use of mirrors to send messages by Roman Emperor Tiberius.
100
First bound books
105 BC
Tsai Lun of China invents paper as we know it.
305
First wooden printing presses invented in China - symbols carved on a wooden block.
1049
First movable type invented - clay - invented in China by Pi Sheng.
1450
Newspapers appear in Europe.
1455
Johannes Gutenberg invents a printing press with metal movable type.
1560
Camera Obscura invented - primitive image making.
1650
First daily newspaper - Leipzig.
1714
Englishmen, Henry Mill receives the first patent for a typewriter.
1793
Claude Chappe invents the first long-distance semaphore (visual or optical) telegraph line.
1814
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce achieves the first photographic image.
1821
Charles Wheatstone reproduces sound in a primitive sound box - the first microphone.
1831
Joseph Henry invents the first electric telegraph.
1835
Samuel Morse invents Morse code.
1843
Samuel Morse invents the first long distance electric telegraph line.Alexander Bain patents the first fax machine.
1861
United States starts the Pony Express for mail delivery.Coleman Sellers invents the Kinematoscope - a machine that flashed a series of still photographs onto a screen.
1867
American, Sholes the first successful and modern typewriter.
1876
Thomas Edison patents the mimeograph - an office copying machine.Alexander Graham Bell patents the electric telephone.Melvyl Dewey writes the Dewey Decimal System for ordering library books.
1877
Thomas Edison patents the phonograph - with a wax cylinder as recording medium.Eadweard Muybridge invents high speed photography - creating first moving pictures that captured motion.
1887
Emile Berliner invents the gramophone - a system of recording which could be used over and over again.
1888
George Eastman patents Kodak roll film camera.
1889
Almon Strowger patents the direct dial telephone or automatic telephone exchange.
1894
Guglielmo Marconi improves wireless telegraphy.
1898
First telephone answering machines.
1899
Valdemar Poulsen invents the first magnetic recordings - using magnetized steel tape as recording medium - the foundation for both mass data storage on disk and tape and the music recording industry.Loudspeakers invented.
1902
Guglielmo Marconi transmits radio signals from Cornwall to Newfoundland - the first radio signal across the Atlantic Ocean.
1904
First regular comic books.
1906
Lee Deforest invents the electronic amplifying tube or triode - this allowed all electronic signals to be amplified improving all electronic communications i.e. telephones and radios.
1910
Thomas Edison demonstrated the first talking motion picture.
1914
First cross continental telephone call made.
1916
First radios with tuners - different stations.
1923
The television or iconoscope (cathode-ray tube) invented by Vladimir Kosma Zworykin - first television camera.
1925
John Logie Baird transmits the first experimental television signal.
1926
Warner Brothers Studios invented a way to record sound separately from the film on large disks and synchronized the sound and motion picture tracks upon playback - an improvement on Thomas Edison's work.
1927
NBC starts two radio networks.CBS founded.First television broadcasts in England.Warner Brothers releases "The Jazz Singer" the first successful talking motion picture.
1930
Radio popularity spreads with the "Golden Age" of radio.First television broadcasts in the United States.Movietone system of recording film sound on an audio track right on the film invented.
1934
Joseph Begun invents the first tape recorder for broadcasting - first magnetic recording.
1938
Television broadcasts able to be taped and edited - rather than only live.
1939
Scheduled television broadcasts begin.
1944
Computers like Harvard's Mark I put into public service - government owned - the age of Information Science begins.
1948
Long playing record invented - vinyl and played at 33 rpm.Transistor invented - enabling the miniaturization of electronic devices.
1949
Network television starts in U.S.45 rpm record invented.
1951
Computers are first sold commercially.
1958
Chester Carlson invents the photocopier or Xerox machine.Integrated Circuit invented - enabling the further miniaturization of electronic devices and computers.
1963
Zip codes invented in the United States.
1966
Xerox invents the Telecopier - the first successful fax machine.
1969
ARPANET - the first Internet started.
1971
The computer floppy disc invented.The microprocessor invented - considered a computer on a chip.
1972
HBO invents pay-TV service for cable.
1976
Apple I home computer invented.First nationwide programming - via satellite and implemented by Ted Turner.
1979
First cellular phone communication network started in Japan..
1980
Sony Walkman invented.
1981
IBM PC first sold.First laptop computers sold to public.Computer mouse becomes regular part of computer.
1983
Time magazines names the computer as "Man of the Year."First cellular phone network started in the United States.
1984
Apple Macintosh released.IBM PC AT released.
1985
Cellular telephones in cars become wide-spread.CD-ROMs in computers.
1994
American government releases control of internet and WWW is born - making communication at lightspeed.
BC
3500 BCto 2900 BC
The Phoenicians develop an alphabet.The Sumerians develop cuneiform writing - pictographs of accounts written on clay tablets.The Egyptians develop hieroglyphic writing.
1775 BC
Greeks use a phonetic alphabet written from left to right.
1400 BC
Oldest record of writing in China on bones.
1270 BC
The first encyclopedia is written in Syria.
900 BC
The very first postal service - for government use in China.
776 BC
First recorded use of homing pigeons used to send message - the winner of the Olympic Games to the Athenians.
530 BC
The Greeks start the very first library.
500 BC to 170 BC
Papyrus rolls and early parchments made of dried reeds - first portable and light writing surfaces.
200 BCto 100 BC
Human messengers on foot or horseback common in Egypt and China with messenger relay stations built.Sometimes fire messages used from relay station to station instead of humans.
AD
14
Romans establish postal services.
37
Heliographs - first recorded use of mirrors to send messages by Roman Emperor Tiberius.
100
First bound books
105 BC
Tsai Lun of China invents paper as we know it.
305
First wooden printing presses invented in China - symbols carved on a wooden block.
1049
First movable type invented - clay - invented in China by Pi Sheng.
1450
Newspapers appear in Europe.
1455
Johannes Gutenberg invents a printing press with metal movable type.
1560
Camera Obscura invented - primitive image making.
1650
First daily newspaper - Leipzig.
1714
Englishmen, Henry Mill receives the first patent for a typewriter.
1793
Claude Chappe invents the first long-distance semaphore (visual or optical) telegraph line.
1814
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce achieves the first photographic image.
1821
Charles Wheatstone reproduces sound in a primitive sound box - the first microphone.
1831
Joseph Henry invents the first electric telegraph.
1835
Samuel Morse invents Morse code.
1843
Samuel Morse invents the first long distance electric telegraph line.Alexander Bain patents the first fax machine.
1861
United States starts the Pony Express for mail delivery.Coleman Sellers invents the Kinematoscope - a machine that flashed a series of still photographs onto a screen.
1867
American, Sholes the first successful and modern typewriter.
1876
Thomas Edison patents the mimeograph - an office copying machine.Alexander Graham Bell patents the electric telephone.Melvyl Dewey writes the Dewey Decimal System for ordering library books.
1877
Thomas Edison patents the phonograph - with a wax cylinder as recording medium.Eadweard Muybridge invents high speed photography - creating first moving pictures that captured motion.
1887
Emile Berliner invents the gramophone - a system of recording which could be used over and over again.
1888
George Eastman patents Kodak roll film camera.
1889
Almon Strowger patents the direct dial telephone or automatic telephone exchange.
1894
Guglielmo Marconi improves wireless telegraphy.
1898
First telephone answering machines.
1899
Valdemar Poulsen invents the first magnetic recordings - using magnetized steel tape as recording medium - the foundation for both mass data storage on disk and tape and the music recording industry.Loudspeakers invented.
1902
Guglielmo Marconi transmits radio signals from Cornwall to Newfoundland - the first radio signal across the Atlantic Ocean.
1904
First regular comic books.
1906
Lee Deforest invents the electronic amplifying tube or triode - this allowed all electronic signals to be amplified improving all electronic communications i.e. telephones and radios.
1910
Thomas Edison demonstrated the first talking motion picture.
1914
First cross continental telephone call made.
1916
First radios with tuners - different stations.
1923
The television or iconoscope (cathode-ray tube) invented by Vladimir Kosma Zworykin - first television camera.
1925
John Logie Baird transmits the first experimental television signal.
1926
Warner Brothers Studios invented a way to record sound separately from the film on large disks and synchronized the sound and motion picture tracks upon playback - an improvement on Thomas Edison's work.
1927
NBC starts two radio networks.CBS founded.First television broadcasts in England.Warner Brothers releases "The Jazz Singer" the first successful talking motion picture.
1930
Radio popularity spreads with the "Golden Age" of radio.First television broadcasts in the United States.Movietone system of recording film sound on an audio track right on the film invented.
1934
Joseph Begun invents the first tape recorder for broadcasting - first magnetic recording.
1938
Television broadcasts able to be taped and edited - rather than only live.
1939
Scheduled television broadcasts begin.
1944
Computers like Harvard's Mark I put into public service - government owned - the age of Information Science begins.
1948
Long playing record invented - vinyl and played at 33 rpm.Transistor invented - enabling the miniaturization of electronic devices.
1949
Network television starts in U.S.45 rpm record invented.
1951
Computers are first sold commercially.
1958
Chester Carlson invents the photocopier or Xerox machine.Integrated Circuit invented - enabling the further miniaturization of electronic devices and computers.
1963
Zip codes invented in the United States.
1966
Xerox invents the Telecopier - the first successful fax machine.
1969
ARPANET - the first Internet started.
1971
The computer floppy disc invented.The microprocessor invented - considered a computer on a chip.
1972
HBO invents pay-TV service for cable.
1976
Apple I home computer invented.First nationwide programming - via satellite and implemented by Ted Turner.
1979
First cellular phone communication network started in Japan..
1980
Sony Walkman invented.
1981
IBM PC first sold.First laptop computers sold to public.Computer mouse becomes regular part of computer.
1983
Time magazines names the computer as "Man of the Year."First cellular phone network started in the United States.
1984
Apple Macintosh released.IBM PC AT released.
1985
Cellular telephones in cars become wide-spread.CD-ROMs in computers.
1994
American government releases control of internet and WWW is born - making communication at lightspeed.
The art of news writing
News writing is a key skill for journalists, but it helps with other types of writing as well. That’s because news writing is about telling a story quickly and concisely. Anyone can learn to do this, with a bit of help. Here’s how you can write the news and get your story across. The technique also works well for writing press releases.
News Writing Structure
News writing has its own structure. It’s called the inverted pyramid. This upside down triangle serves as a guide for how you include information in the story. Using the inverted pyramid means starting with the most important information, then putting the next most important info and so on. It can also serve as a guide for writing each paragraph in the story. Start with the most important point, then the next most important and so on.
The inverted pyramid has an interesting history. Before digital printing and desktop publishing, news was laid out manually. If a late breaking story came in and the editor needed to make room, then the editor would order another story to be cut. Having the most important information at the top meant that readers always got the essential parts of the story.
Writing The Facts
Another way to think of the inverted pyramid is that you start with the facts and then add the background. So, how do you know what background to add? It’s easy. You can use the 6Ws. Strictly speaking, there aren’t six Ws, there are actually 5Ws and 1H, but the formula seems to work. That mnemonic reminds us to include the who, where, what, why, when and how of a story.
Why is this? Think about how you tell a story to your friends. You might say: ‘You’ll never believe WHO I just saw!’ Then you might go on to tell the story of where the person was, what they were doing, and why it’s scandalous. We all want to hear about people – and that’s what news is about? Look at any news story and you will see that all of this information is in the first two paragraphs. Anything after that is background to the story.
Let me give another example. If I were writing about a car crash, I would say who was involved, when and where it happened, why it happened and how it happened. Those would be the main points and my story might look something like this:
Two people sustained serious injuries in a car crash at Hill Road at 6am today. The collision happened when Mr. Smith swerved into the opposite lane to avoid a dog in the road. Ms Jones, who was in that lane, was unable to stop in time. Both Mr. Smith and Ms Jones have been taken to the local hospital.
This is not a perfect example, but you get the idea – and now you can write the news too
News Writing Structure
News writing has its own structure. It’s called the inverted pyramid. This upside down triangle serves as a guide for how you include information in the story. Using the inverted pyramid means starting with the most important information, then putting the next most important info and so on. It can also serve as a guide for writing each paragraph in the story. Start with the most important point, then the next most important and so on.
The inverted pyramid has an interesting history. Before digital printing and desktop publishing, news was laid out manually. If a late breaking story came in and the editor needed to make room, then the editor would order another story to be cut. Having the most important information at the top meant that readers always got the essential parts of the story.
Writing The Facts
Another way to think of the inverted pyramid is that you start with the facts and then add the background. So, how do you know what background to add? It’s easy. You can use the 6Ws. Strictly speaking, there aren’t six Ws, there are actually 5Ws and 1H, but the formula seems to work. That mnemonic reminds us to include the who, where, what, why, when and how of a story.
Why is this? Think about how you tell a story to your friends. You might say: ‘You’ll never believe WHO I just saw!’ Then you might go on to tell the story of where the person was, what they were doing, and why it’s scandalous. We all want to hear about people – and that’s what news is about? Look at any news story and you will see that all of this information is in the first two paragraphs. Anything after that is background to the story.
Let me give another example. If I were writing about a car crash, I would say who was involved, when and where it happened, why it happened and how it happened. Those would be the main points and my story might look something like this:
Two people sustained serious injuries in a car crash at Hill Road at 6am today. The collision happened when Mr. Smith swerved into the opposite lane to avoid a dog in the road. Ms Jones, who was in that lane, was unable to stop in time. Both Mr. Smith and Ms Jones have been taken to the local hospital.
This is not a perfect example, but you get the idea – and now you can write the news too
Broadcast writing style tips
General rules of writing
1. The best way to learn broadcast style is to listen to radio deejays and television anchors/reporters.2. Write clearly. Read copy aloud to hear how it sounds.3. Use conversational style—simple and direct.4. Transitions are necessary, but pay close attention to how natural they sound in the broadcast.5. Use active voice.6. Emphasize the latest news of a continuing story, but give necessary background early to provide context for the story. The rule is that every story should stand on its own.7. Use present tense, but don’t belabor it. Not every story must sound as if it just happened moments before the newscast.8. Don’t cram too much information into the lead. The 5 W’s and H lead (from the print media) will confuse audience. Try for a softer lead with non-essential facts that get audience’s attention to the story but are not too complex.9. At the same time, don’t underestimate your audience and talk down to them.10. Keep sentences short (easier for broadcaster to say and easier for listener to follow) and economical (give necessary info in as few words as possible).11. Avoid highly technical words, professional jargon, clichés and obfuscation by bureaucrats.12. Avoid sexism in pronouns.13. Find the lead, then tell story chronologically.14. Answer logical questions, and if you don’t know the answer, say so but do not ignore the question.15. Use humor sparingly. Humor often muddles the distinction between a serious subject and a lighthearted one.II. Mechanics of style and grammar1. Contractions: Use them because that’s how we speak. Be careful when contracting "not"—n’t is not always discernible to the audience and can create serious miscommunication.2. "Says": In broadcast more than print it is necessary not to overuse a word. Some suggestions for replacement:acknowledge convey claimsadmit recount confirmdeclare state explain*note=see Be Careful entry below for warning against using in improper context.3. BE CAREFUL! The following words have more than one meaning and must not be used improperly:
accident= Accidents happen all the time, but so do intentional acts. Don’t predetermine cause by a haphazard word choice.admit= Other than meaning to grant entrance, the word means to concede or confess and implies acknowledgement of wrongdoing.claim= Claim means to demand or assert a right (generally used in legal context).elderly= This may be viewed as a negative. Use only for people 65 years of age and above—and even then, use carefully.ghetto= Don’t use lightly. This is a section of the city overwhelmingly inhabited by members of a minority group and/or a minority group that has been forced to live in that section.guerrilla, insurgent, rebel= Guerrilla fighters generally employ hit-and-run tactics; insurgents or rebels fight against the government generally and are more appropriate terms to use in most cases.illegal= Use only in reference to a violation of law.leftist, rightist, radical= Use more precise political descriptions. These are at best subjective terms as are conservative, left, right, moderate. Also, a radical wants upheaval of the existing government, so be particularly careful.sanction, sanctions= Sanction, as a verb or noun, means authoritative approval. Sanctions, as a noun, usually in international law, refers to efforts of one or more countries to force another to change some policy. When speaking, be sure to make the distinction clear.survey= Only use this word if there has been an actual survey.
4. Common problems. The following list represent some of the most misused, misunderstood or mispronounced words by broadcasters. Be sure to articulate words accurately so they cannot be misunderstood as another word with a different meaning. Also, make sure the word you say, is the one you mean!
accept, except= accept is to take; except is to excludeallude, refer= allude is to speak of something indirectly; refer is to speak of directlyallusion, illusion= allusion is a casual reference to something; illusion means to create a false impressionboycott, embargo= boycott involves an organized refusal to buy, use or participate in something; embargo involves a government-imposed restriction on tradedie, kill= all people eventually die; some people are killedemigrate, immigrate= emigrate means to leave a country to settle elsewhere; immigrate means to enter a country from the outside.ensure, insure= unless you’re speaking about insurance, the proper word is ensureirregardless= not a word, use regardless insteadrebut, refute= rebut means to argue against with evidence; refute means to prove wrongtoward= not towardswhether or not= should almost always be just whether
5. Names, titles, initials:a) Do not begin a sentence with an unknown name unless preceded by an identifying titleb) Drop middle and first initials from namesc) No courtesy titles (except for clarifications)d) Long, involved titles should follow a namee) Professional titles may be used on first reference6. Beware of personal pronouns. Make sure no doubt as to the reference.7. Attribution at the beginning of the sentence or as a break in the sentence, but never at the end.8. Direct quotes:a) Use phrases to tell reader of a direct quote (ie: The senator attacks what he calls—”Needless and irresponsible use of federal powers.”)b) Use sparinglyc) Avoid quotes with “I” or “we”d) Use neutral verbs—says, declares—to avoid editorial flavor where not indicated by speaker9. Make sure location of story is clear.Sources:UPI Stylebook, Third Edition: The Authoritative Handbook for Writers, Editors and News Directors. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company, 1992.Popper, Robert A. Broadcast News Writing Stylebook. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995. By Laurie Lattimore
1. The best way to learn broadcast style is to listen to radio deejays and television anchors/reporters.2. Write clearly. Read copy aloud to hear how it sounds.3. Use conversational style—simple and direct.4. Transitions are necessary, but pay close attention to how natural they sound in the broadcast.5. Use active voice.6. Emphasize the latest news of a continuing story, but give necessary background early to provide context for the story. The rule is that every story should stand on its own.7. Use present tense, but don’t belabor it. Not every story must sound as if it just happened moments before the newscast.8. Don’t cram too much information into the lead. The 5 W’s and H lead (from the print media) will confuse audience. Try for a softer lead with non-essential facts that get audience’s attention to the story but are not too complex.9. At the same time, don’t underestimate your audience and talk down to them.10. Keep sentences short (easier for broadcaster to say and easier for listener to follow) and economical (give necessary info in as few words as possible).11. Avoid highly technical words, professional jargon, clichés and obfuscation by bureaucrats.12. Avoid sexism in pronouns.13. Find the lead, then tell story chronologically.14. Answer logical questions, and if you don’t know the answer, say so but do not ignore the question.15. Use humor sparingly. Humor often muddles the distinction between a serious subject and a lighthearted one.II. Mechanics of style and grammar1. Contractions: Use them because that’s how we speak. Be careful when contracting "not"—n’t is not always discernible to the audience and can create serious miscommunication.2. "Says": In broadcast more than print it is necessary not to overuse a word. Some suggestions for replacement:acknowledge convey claimsadmit recount confirmdeclare state explain*note=see Be Careful entry below for warning against using in improper context.3. BE CAREFUL! The following words have more than one meaning and must not be used improperly:
accident= Accidents happen all the time, but so do intentional acts. Don’t predetermine cause by a haphazard word choice.admit= Other than meaning to grant entrance, the word means to concede or confess and implies acknowledgement of wrongdoing.claim= Claim means to demand or assert a right (generally used in legal context).elderly= This may be viewed as a negative. Use only for people 65 years of age and above—and even then, use carefully.ghetto= Don’t use lightly. This is a section of the city overwhelmingly inhabited by members of a minority group and/or a minority group that has been forced to live in that section.guerrilla, insurgent, rebel= Guerrilla fighters generally employ hit-and-run tactics; insurgents or rebels fight against the government generally and are more appropriate terms to use in most cases.illegal= Use only in reference to a violation of law.leftist, rightist, radical= Use more precise political descriptions. These are at best subjective terms as are conservative, left, right, moderate. Also, a radical wants upheaval of the existing government, so be particularly careful.sanction, sanctions= Sanction, as a verb or noun, means authoritative approval. Sanctions, as a noun, usually in international law, refers to efforts of one or more countries to force another to change some policy. When speaking, be sure to make the distinction clear.survey= Only use this word if there has been an actual survey.
4. Common problems. The following list represent some of the most misused, misunderstood or mispronounced words by broadcasters. Be sure to articulate words accurately so they cannot be misunderstood as another word with a different meaning. Also, make sure the word you say, is the one you mean!
accept, except= accept is to take; except is to excludeallude, refer= allude is to speak of something indirectly; refer is to speak of directlyallusion, illusion= allusion is a casual reference to something; illusion means to create a false impressionboycott, embargo= boycott involves an organized refusal to buy, use or participate in something; embargo involves a government-imposed restriction on tradedie, kill= all people eventually die; some people are killedemigrate, immigrate= emigrate means to leave a country to settle elsewhere; immigrate means to enter a country from the outside.ensure, insure= unless you’re speaking about insurance, the proper word is ensureirregardless= not a word, use regardless insteadrebut, refute= rebut means to argue against with evidence; refute means to prove wrongtoward= not towardswhether or not= should almost always be just whether
5. Names, titles, initials:a) Do not begin a sentence with an unknown name unless preceded by an identifying titleb) Drop middle and first initials from namesc) No courtesy titles (except for clarifications)d) Long, involved titles should follow a namee) Professional titles may be used on first reference6. Beware of personal pronouns. Make sure no doubt as to the reference.7. Attribution at the beginning of the sentence or as a break in the sentence, but never at the end.8. Direct quotes:a) Use phrases to tell reader of a direct quote (ie: The senator attacks what he calls—”Needless and irresponsible use of federal powers.”)b) Use sparinglyc) Avoid quotes with “I” or “we”d) Use neutral verbs—says, declares—to avoid editorial flavor where not indicated by speaker9. Make sure location of story is clear.Sources:UPI Stylebook, Third Edition: The Authoritative Handbook for Writers, Editors and News Directors. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company, 1992.Popper, Robert A. Broadcast News Writing Stylebook. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995. By Laurie Lattimore
'Hot 100' News Writing Tips
LEAD
1. Keep leads short. Those with 35 words or less are preferred.
2. Leads limited to one or two sentences are preferred.
3. Avoid starting leads with "when" or "where" unless the time or place is unusual. Most leads start with "who" or "what."
4. Avoid beginning leads with "there" or "this."
5. In leads about future events, the time, day (date) and place usually go at the end of the paragraph.
6. In leads about past events, the day (date) of the event usually appears before or after the verb. Sometimes the day (date) comes at the end of the first sentence or the paragraph if it is a one-sentence lead.
7. Use quote and question leads sparingly.
8. The first five to "what happened" makes a better story than the fact it did.
BODY
9. Keep paragraphs short. Those limited to 60 words or less or no longer than 10 typeset lines are preferred.
10. Paragraphs limited to one to three sentences are preferred.
11. Each paragraph should contain only one idea.
12. Remember short paragraphs encourage readers to continue reading.
EDITING
13. Eliminate the word "that" whenever possible.
14. For past events, report it happened "Friday," NOT "last Friday." Eliminate the word "last." For future events, report it will happen "Monday," NOT "next Monday." Eliminate the word "next."
15. Eliminate the "be" verb. Write "she will resign" instead of "she will be resigning. "Write in future tense (will) instead of future progressive tense (will be "ing").
16. Eliminate words such as "when asked" and "concluded." These are weak transitions. Just report what was said.
17. A long title should follow the name. A title that follows the name should be lowercased and set off in commas. Shorter titles that precede names should be capitalized.
18. Avoid the contractions of he'd and they'd. "He'd" can mean both "he had" and "he would," and "they'd" can mean both "they had" and "they would."
19. Always double-check the spelling of names.
20. Make sure numbers match the items listed.
21. Make sure "only" is placed properly in a sentence. The location of "only" can change the meaning of a sentence.
22. Write. Rewrite. Revise. Rewrite. Revise. Edit. Revise. Edit. Edit. The first version of a story is NOT good enough to go into print. Someone once said THERE IS NO GREAT WRITING, ONLY GREAT REWRITING.
23. Read the story out loud to catch awkward sentence constructions.
GRAMMAR
24. If "none" means "no one" or "not one," use a singular verb. Consult the AP Stylebook or Grammar for Journalists for more information. Example: None was found guilty.
25. When you use a pronoun to refer to a team or a group, the proper pronoun to use is "its," NOT they. Example: The team wants to improve its record.
26. Make sure verbs or other phrases are "parallel" or the same in structure when they appear in stories or list. Examples: He likes gardening, fishing and hunting. The fire killed at least 12 persons, injured 60 more and forced scores of residents to leap from windows.
27. Use THIRD PERSON (she, he, it, its, her, hers, him, his, they, them, their, theirs) in news stories. Only on rare occasions do you use first person (I, mine, we, our, ours) or second person (you, your, yours) in news stories.
28. When "either ... or" and "neither ... nor" are used, the verb agrees in person with the nearer subject. Examples: Neither the coach nor the players are to blame. Neither the players nor the coach is to blame.
29. Use active voice vs. passive voice. The passive voice is formed by using some form of the verb "be" with the past participle of an action verb: is shot, was shot, has been shot, had been shot, may be shot, will be shot. The word "by" may also signal the sentence is written in passive voice. Rewrite sentences to eliminate the word "by." Example: Passive voice ; The city was ordered by the judge to make the payment. Active voice ; The judge ordered the city to make the payment.
MISCELLANEOUS
30. When something isn't clear, make a drawing of it. Putting it on paper can clarify the situation.
31. WHEN IN DOUBT, LEAVE IT OUT. This has to do with questionable information that may be libelous, incomplete information and information the writer does not have a clear understanding of.
NONSEXIST, NONAGEIST, NONDISCRIMINATORY COMMUNICATION
32. Avoid words that reinforce ageist, racial and ethnic stereotypes.
33. Avoid racial identification except when it's essential to communication.
34. Substitute asexual words for "man" words or sexist words.
NO
YES
mankind .......................................................
people, humanity, human beings,
human race
man-made ....................................................
synthetic, artificial, manufactured,
of human origin
manpower ....................................................
workers, work force, staff, personnel
man-hours ....................................................
work hours
man-sized .....................................................
husky, sizable, large, requiring
exceptional ability
founding fathers ...........................................
pioneers, colonists, patriots, forebears
gentleman's agreement .................................
informational agreement or contract
for the man on the way up ............................
for the person or executive on
his or her way up
for the lady of the house ................................
for the homemaker or consumer or head
of the household
anchorman ....................................................
anchor
advertising man ............................................
advertising professional or practitioner
chairman .......................................................
chairperson
cleaning woman ............................................
housekeeper, custodian
Englishmen ...................................................
the English
fireman ...........................................................
firefighter
foreman ........................................................
supervisor
a man who ....................................................
someone who
man the exhibit ..............................................
run the exhibit, staff the exhibit
man of letters ................................................
writer
newsman ......................................................
reporter
postman ........................................................
letter carrier
policeman ....................................................
police officer
salesman .......................................................
salesperson
stewardess ....................................................
flight attendant
self-made man ..............................................
self-made person
weatherman ..................................................
meteorologist
workman ......................................................
worker
the girls (for women over 18) ......................
the women
the little lady, the better half ..........................
wife
girl Friday .....................................................
secretary, assistant, right hand
libber or women's lib ....................................
feminist, liberationist, women's movement
the ladies and the men ...................................
the women and the men, the ladies and
the gentlemen, the girls and the boys
(Note the parallelism in structures.)
man and wife ................................................
husband and wife
you and your wife .........................................
you and your spouse
coed (for female students at a
coeducational school) ...................................
student
ladylike .........................................................
well-mannered
housewife .....................................................
homemaker (for a person who manages a
home); in an economic sense, consumer,
customer or shopper
career girl or career woman .........................
refer to the woman's profession or
vocation ; Professor Jane Jones;
Kathy Smith, welder
35. Separate the person from the handicap. For more information, go to www.easter.seals.org/resources/press/tips.asp.
NO
YES
Mary, an epileptic, had no trouble
Mary, who had epilepsy, had no trouble
doing her job.
doing her job.
The handicapped parents met to
The parents, each with some handicap,
exchange ideas.
met to exchange ideas.
The deaf accountant spotted the error.
The accountant spotted the error.
36. Be respectful of persons with handicaps. For more information, go to www.easter.seals.org/resources/press/tips.asp
NO
YES
crippled .........................................................
impaired, limited, disabled or be specific -
paraplegic
deaf and dumb, deaf mute .............................
deaf, hearing and/or speech impaired
crazy, insane, dull, half-witted, retarded ........
mentally ill, developmentally
disadvantaged, disabled or limited, or
be specific - emotionally disturbed,
slow learner
fits, spells ......................................................
seizures, epilepsy
37. Use "he or she" or "she or he" for "he." If using "he or she" or "him or her" becomes cumbersome, consider using a plural pronoun ; "they," "them," "their" or "theirs." Plural pronouns, however, are weaker than singular ones.
ORGANIZATION
38. Make sure information introduced or outlined in the lead is covered in the same order in the body of the story.
39. Avoid introducing new information at the end of a story. All aspects of a story should usually be introduced or outlined in the first few paragraphs.
40. Transitions are necessary to show the reader that the writer has a sense of direction. A word, phrase, sentence or paragraph can move the reader from one thought to another.
PARTS OF SPEECH
41. Avoid using "like" for "as." "Like" is a preposition and takes a noun or pronoun object. "As" is a subordinate conjunction that introduces dependent clauses. Examples: It tastes like a peach. The one-time millionaire now works from dawn to dusk, as he did in his youth.
42. Most adverbs are unnecessary. Redundant adverbs weaken strong verbs. Instead of "tightly clenched teeth," write "clinched teeth." Instead of "the radio blared loudly," write "the radio blared."
43. Most adjectives are unnecessary. The concept is oftentimes already in the noun. Use adjectives sparingly.
44. Choose verbs that suggest what they mean. "Active" verbs add pace, clarity and vigor to writing. Verbs are a writer's most important tools. Avoid "be" verbs.
PUNCTUATION
45. Use a comma with "according to." Example: ... , according to the news release. According to John Jones, ... .
46. There is no comma between time, date and place. Example: The accident occurred at 4:32 a.m. Monday one-half block north of Central Dairy on Third Street South.
47. When in doubt about the use of a comma, leave it out.
48. Avoid comma splices and comma blunders. If a comma is placed between the subject (noun) and predicate (verb), it's called a "comma splice." Example: The Fountain of Youth, is not in Florida. (The comma is NOT needed.) If two independent clauses are joined by a comma, this is a "comma blunder" or "comma fault." Example: The Fountain of Youth is not in Florida, it's in Russia. (This is known as a run-on sentence. A period or a semicolon should replace the comma. If a period is used, the "i" on "it's" also needs to be capitalized.)
49. A comma should precede "such as," "especially" and "including" when these words introduce examples. Examples: The advertised price of the tour does not cover some personal expenses, such as laundry, entertainment and tips. He likes fruit, especially oranges. In newswriting, students study various approaches to writing, including the inverted pyramid, chronological, narrative, personalized and first-person. When "such as" is used with a restrictive application, the comma is omitted. Example: Magazines such as these should be thrown in the trash.
50. Quotation marks go outside commas (,") and periods (."). They go inside semicolons (";) and colons (":).
51. In a series, a comma is NOT needed before the "and." Example: red, white and blue.
52. The dash is a long mark (-- or ; ). There should be a space before and after the dash. The dash should be used before words and sentences run as lists.
53. The hyphen is a short mark ( - ) and is used to divide words or to link hyphenated adjectives. Don't hyphenate adverbs ending in "ly" with adjectives. Write "frequently misused words," NOT "frequently-misused words."
54. Use an exclamation point in only the rarest of situations and only after brief interjections. Exclamation points are "graphic tantrums" and sometimes demonstrate a lack of control on the writer's part. The order of the words in a sentence should be arranged in such a way that they make the desired impression. Let the reader decide if the content is humorous or exciting on his or her own.
QUOTES AND ATTRIBUTION
55. Use attribution only once per paragraph.
56. Attribution is needed when policy change statements are made, when opinions are expressed or when "professional" opinions from physicians, scientists, engineers and others are used. Attribution is also needed with direct quotations and indirect quotations (paraphrased information).
57. Attribution is NOT needed when facts are commonplace and not subject to dispute or when they are accepted and historically true.
58. Attribution is usually noun + verb. Example: Jones said. It may be verb + noun when the source's title follows his or her name. Example: ... ," said John Jones, chairman of the department of English.
59. Attribution should be placed at the end of the first sentence when the quote is made up of two or more sentences.
60. When one quote follows another but the second one is from a different source, attribution for the second quote should be placed at the beginning of it. This helps the reader know immediately that a different person is speaking.
61. "Said" is the best word for attribution. Other words can be used, but they should accurately represent how something is said.
62. Use past tense verbs (said vs. says) for attribution in news stories.
63. Let quotes begin the paragraph. Show them off. Quote marks attract the reader's eye. Use them to encourage the reader to continue reading.
64. Avoid the use of partial quotes. Quote or paraphrase material. Don't mix the two.
65. Each time a different source is cited, start a new paragraph.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
66. Avoid using the same word twice in a sentence.
67. The optimum number of words to use in a sentence is 14 to 16. The average reader cannot comprehend a sentence with more than 40 words.
68. When writing becomes cumbersome, turn one long sentence into two or three shorter ones.
69. If a long sentence must be used, place a short sentence before and after it.
70. Don't have more than three consecutive prepositional phrases in a sentence. Prepositional phrases start with about, above, against, at, between, by, down, during, for, from, in, like, on, over, through, to, toward, under, up, until, upon, with ...
71. Count the words in a story's sentences. Sentence length should vary. Stories become dull when sentences are all the same length.
72. Don't start or end a sentence with "however." Start the sentence and then work "however" into it as soon as possible. This word is intended to cause an interruption in thought.
SPELLING
73. Use "Spell Check" on the computer.
74. Consult a dictionary. (Webster New World Dictionary is the preferred reference.)
75. Ask for help. Public library information desk personnel can be resourceful and helpful. Don't call university libraries for assistance.
STYLE
76. Consult the AP Stylebook and Libel Manual.
77. If the answer cannot be found in the AP Stylebook, consult a dictionary or a grammar book.
78. The order for writing when and where is time, day (date) and place.
79. Use the day of the week for six days before or after a specific day.
80. Use the date when it is seven or more days before or after a specific day.
81. On first reference, identify a person by his or her first and last names. On second reference, refer to the person by his or her last name only. On second and all other references, you don't need Miss, Mrs., Ms. or Mr. unless it's an obituary.
VOCABULARY
82. Use simple words. Never send the reader to the dictionary. Odds are the reader won't bother looking up the definition.
83. Words such as "thing" and "a lot" annoy some readers, bosses and executives. Avoid using them. (Note the correct spelling of "a lot.")
84. Be careful how the word "held" is used. Make sure the object can be "held" physically. Example: Weak ; The meeting will be held at noon Monday in Anthony Administration Building, Room 125. Better ; The meeting will be at noon Monday in ...
85. Avoid using words that qualify how someone feels, thinks or sees. "Little qualifiers" include the following: a bit, a little, sort of, kind of, rather, around, quite, very, pretty, much, in a very real sense, somewhat.
86. Avoid technical jargon unless 95 percent or more of the readers will understand it. If technical jargon is used and it won't be understood by the majority of readers, be sure to explain each term used.
87. Learn the difference between "affect" (usually a verb) and "effect" (usually a noun). Consult the AP Stylebook or a dictionary for more information.
88. Never say "yesterday" or "tomorrow." These words are confusing to readers. Use the day of the week. "Today" may be used.
89. Know the difference between its (no apostrophe for possessive pronoun) and it's (the contraction for it is). Examples: The dog has a thorn in its (possessive pronoun) paw. It's (contraction) time to go.
90. Know when to use "their" (possessive pronoun), "there" (adverb) and "they're" (the contraction for they are). Examples: It is their (possessive pronoun) project. The project is over there (adverb). They're (contraction) working together on the project.
91. Know the difference between whose (possessive pronoun) and who's (the contraction for who is). Examples: Whose (possessive pronoun) coat is this? Who's (contraction) going on the trip?
92. Know when to use "to" (preposition), "too" (adverb) and "two" (adjective). Examples: The advertising group is going to (preposition) Indianapolis. The public relations group wants to go, too (adverb). Some members are not going on the trip because it will take too (adverb) much time from their schedules. The two (adjective) groups will go to Indianapolis.
93. A person dies "unexpectedly," "apparently of a heart attack," "after a brief illness," "after a long illness," "of injuries suffered or sustained," "following or after an operation" or "of a disease."
94. In connection with suicides, it is best to say the person was "found dead" or "fell or plunged to his or her death" until the coroner completes his or her investigation. When suicide is reported, used died by suicide vs. committed suicide. For more guidelines on reporting and writing about suicide, go to www.suicidology.org/media/7.html.
95. In connection with arrests, write "arrested in connection with," "sought in connection with," "charged with" or "arrested on charges of." If a confession is involved but the confession has not been admitted as evidence in court, report only that the prisoner "has made a statement."
96. Injuries are "suffered or sustained," NOT received.
97. With murder, arrests are made "in connection with the death of." It should not be reported that a victim was murdered until someone is convicted of the crime. In obituaries, it may be said the victim was "killed" or "slain."
98. Remember two objects must be moving to "collide." If a vehicle runs into a parked one or an object, say the vehicle "struck" the stationary one.
99. Sometimes information cannot be verified. If doubt exists regarding a person's name, report the person "was listed by police as John Smith" or he "gave his name as John Smith." If a person is dead or unconscious and there is no identification, he or she is "unidentified," NOT unnamed. If there are questions about where a person lives, report "address not given" or "address unknown."
100. With fires, a building is "destroyed," NOT completely destroyed. Buildings also are damaged "lightly," "moderately" or "heavily." A fire may "gut" or "destroy" the interior of a building. To raze a building is to level it to the ground. (Compiled by Sheryl Swingley)
1. Keep leads short. Those with 35 words or less are preferred.
2. Leads limited to one or two sentences are preferred.
3. Avoid starting leads with "when" or "where" unless the time or place is unusual. Most leads start with "who" or "what."
4. Avoid beginning leads with "there" or "this."
5. In leads about future events, the time, day (date) and place usually go at the end of the paragraph.
6. In leads about past events, the day (date) of the event usually appears before or after the verb. Sometimes the day (date) comes at the end of the first sentence or the paragraph if it is a one-sentence lead.
7. Use quote and question leads sparingly.
8. The first five to "what happened" makes a better story than the fact it did.
BODY
9. Keep paragraphs short. Those limited to 60 words or less or no longer than 10 typeset lines are preferred.
10. Paragraphs limited to one to three sentences are preferred.
11. Each paragraph should contain only one idea.
12. Remember short paragraphs encourage readers to continue reading.
EDITING
13. Eliminate the word "that" whenever possible.
14. For past events, report it happened "Friday," NOT "last Friday." Eliminate the word "last." For future events, report it will happen "Monday," NOT "next Monday." Eliminate the word "next."
15. Eliminate the "be" verb. Write "she will resign" instead of "she will be resigning. "Write in future tense (will) instead of future progressive tense (will be "ing").
16. Eliminate words such as "when asked" and "concluded." These are weak transitions. Just report what was said.
17. A long title should follow the name. A title that follows the name should be lowercased and set off in commas. Shorter titles that precede names should be capitalized.
18. Avoid the contractions of he'd and they'd. "He'd" can mean both "he had" and "he would," and "they'd" can mean both "they had" and "they would."
19. Always double-check the spelling of names.
20. Make sure numbers match the items listed.
21. Make sure "only" is placed properly in a sentence. The location of "only" can change the meaning of a sentence.
22. Write. Rewrite. Revise. Rewrite. Revise. Edit. Revise. Edit. Edit. The first version of a story is NOT good enough to go into print. Someone once said THERE IS NO GREAT WRITING, ONLY GREAT REWRITING.
23. Read the story out loud to catch awkward sentence constructions.
GRAMMAR
24. If "none" means "no one" or "not one," use a singular verb. Consult the AP Stylebook or Grammar for Journalists for more information. Example: None was found guilty.
25. When you use a pronoun to refer to a team or a group, the proper pronoun to use is "its," NOT they. Example: The team wants to improve its record.
26. Make sure verbs or other phrases are "parallel" or the same in structure when they appear in stories or list. Examples: He likes gardening, fishing and hunting. The fire killed at least 12 persons, injured 60 more and forced scores of residents to leap from windows.
27. Use THIRD PERSON (she, he, it, its, her, hers, him, his, they, them, their, theirs) in news stories. Only on rare occasions do you use first person (I, mine, we, our, ours) or second person (you, your, yours) in news stories.
28. When "either ... or" and "neither ... nor" are used, the verb agrees in person with the nearer subject. Examples: Neither the coach nor the players are to blame. Neither the players nor the coach is to blame.
29. Use active voice vs. passive voice. The passive voice is formed by using some form of the verb "be" with the past participle of an action verb: is shot, was shot, has been shot, had been shot, may be shot, will be shot. The word "by" may also signal the sentence is written in passive voice. Rewrite sentences to eliminate the word "by." Example: Passive voice ; The city was ordered by the judge to make the payment. Active voice ; The judge ordered the city to make the payment.
MISCELLANEOUS
30. When something isn't clear, make a drawing of it. Putting it on paper can clarify the situation.
31. WHEN IN DOUBT, LEAVE IT OUT. This has to do with questionable information that may be libelous, incomplete information and information the writer does not have a clear understanding of.
NONSEXIST, NONAGEIST, NONDISCRIMINATORY COMMUNICATION
32. Avoid words that reinforce ageist, racial and ethnic stereotypes.
33. Avoid racial identification except when it's essential to communication.
34. Substitute asexual words for "man" words or sexist words.
NO
YES
mankind .......................................................
people, humanity, human beings,
human race
man-made ....................................................
synthetic, artificial, manufactured,
of human origin
manpower ....................................................
workers, work force, staff, personnel
man-hours ....................................................
work hours
man-sized .....................................................
husky, sizable, large, requiring
exceptional ability
founding fathers ...........................................
pioneers, colonists, patriots, forebears
gentleman's agreement .................................
informational agreement or contract
for the man on the way up ............................
for the person or executive on
his or her way up
for the lady of the house ................................
for the homemaker or consumer or head
of the household
anchorman ....................................................
anchor
advertising man ............................................
advertising professional or practitioner
chairman .......................................................
chairperson
cleaning woman ............................................
housekeeper, custodian
Englishmen ...................................................
the English
fireman ...........................................................
firefighter
foreman ........................................................
supervisor
a man who ....................................................
someone who
man the exhibit ..............................................
run the exhibit, staff the exhibit
man of letters ................................................
writer
newsman ......................................................
reporter
postman ........................................................
letter carrier
policeman ....................................................
police officer
salesman .......................................................
salesperson
stewardess ....................................................
flight attendant
self-made man ..............................................
self-made person
weatherman ..................................................
meteorologist
workman ......................................................
worker
the girls (for women over 18) ......................
the women
the little lady, the better half ..........................
wife
girl Friday .....................................................
secretary, assistant, right hand
libber or women's lib ....................................
feminist, liberationist, women's movement
the ladies and the men ...................................
the women and the men, the ladies and
the gentlemen, the girls and the boys
(Note the parallelism in structures.)
man and wife ................................................
husband and wife
you and your wife .........................................
you and your spouse
coed (for female students at a
coeducational school) ...................................
student
ladylike .........................................................
well-mannered
housewife .....................................................
homemaker (for a person who manages a
home); in an economic sense, consumer,
customer or shopper
career girl or career woman .........................
refer to the woman's profession or
vocation ; Professor Jane Jones;
Kathy Smith, welder
35. Separate the person from the handicap. For more information, go to www.easter.seals.org/resources/press/tips.asp.
NO
YES
Mary, an epileptic, had no trouble
Mary, who had epilepsy, had no trouble
doing her job.
doing her job.
The handicapped parents met to
The parents, each with some handicap,
exchange ideas.
met to exchange ideas.
The deaf accountant spotted the error.
The accountant spotted the error.
36. Be respectful of persons with handicaps. For more information, go to www.easter.seals.org/resources/press/tips.asp
NO
YES
crippled .........................................................
impaired, limited, disabled or be specific -
paraplegic
deaf and dumb, deaf mute .............................
deaf, hearing and/or speech impaired
crazy, insane, dull, half-witted, retarded ........
mentally ill, developmentally
disadvantaged, disabled or limited, or
be specific - emotionally disturbed,
slow learner
fits, spells ......................................................
seizures, epilepsy
37. Use "he or she" or "she or he" for "he." If using "he or she" or "him or her" becomes cumbersome, consider using a plural pronoun ; "they," "them," "their" or "theirs." Plural pronouns, however, are weaker than singular ones.
ORGANIZATION
38. Make sure information introduced or outlined in the lead is covered in the same order in the body of the story.
39. Avoid introducing new information at the end of a story. All aspects of a story should usually be introduced or outlined in the first few paragraphs.
40. Transitions are necessary to show the reader that the writer has a sense of direction. A word, phrase, sentence or paragraph can move the reader from one thought to another.
PARTS OF SPEECH
41. Avoid using "like" for "as." "Like" is a preposition and takes a noun or pronoun object. "As" is a subordinate conjunction that introduces dependent clauses. Examples: It tastes like a peach. The one-time millionaire now works from dawn to dusk, as he did in his youth.
42. Most adverbs are unnecessary. Redundant adverbs weaken strong verbs. Instead of "tightly clenched teeth," write "clinched teeth." Instead of "the radio blared loudly," write "the radio blared."
43. Most adjectives are unnecessary. The concept is oftentimes already in the noun. Use adjectives sparingly.
44. Choose verbs that suggest what they mean. "Active" verbs add pace, clarity and vigor to writing. Verbs are a writer's most important tools. Avoid "be" verbs.
PUNCTUATION
45. Use a comma with "according to." Example: ... , according to the news release. According to John Jones, ... .
46. There is no comma between time, date and place. Example: The accident occurred at 4:32 a.m. Monday one-half block north of Central Dairy on Third Street South.
47. When in doubt about the use of a comma, leave it out.
48. Avoid comma splices and comma blunders. If a comma is placed between the subject (noun) and predicate (verb), it's called a "comma splice." Example: The Fountain of Youth, is not in Florida. (The comma is NOT needed.) If two independent clauses are joined by a comma, this is a "comma blunder" or "comma fault." Example: The Fountain of Youth is not in Florida, it's in Russia. (This is known as a run-on sentence. A period or a semicolon should replace the comma. If a period is used, the "i" on "it's" also needs to be capitalized.)
49. A comma should precede "such as," "especially" and "including" when these words introduce examples. Examples: The advertised price of the tour does not cover some personal expenses, such as laundry, entertainment and tips. He likes fruit, especially oranges. In newswriting, students study various approaches to writing, including the inverted pyramid, chronological, narrative, personalized and first-person. When "such as" is used with a restrictive application, the comma is omitted. Example: Magazines such as these should be thrown in the trash.
50. Quotation marks go outside commas (,") and periods (."). They go inside semicolons (";) and colons (":).
51. In a series, a comma is NOT needed before the "and." Example: red, white and blue.
52. The dash is a long mark (-- or ; ). There should be a space before and after the dash. The dash should be used before words and sentences run as lists.
53. The hyphen is a short mark ( - ) and is used to divide words or to link hyphenated adjectives. Don't hyphenate adverbs ending in "ly" with adjectives. Write "frequently misused words," NOT "frequently-misused words."
54. Use an exclamation point in only the rarest of situations and only after brief interjections. Exclamation points are "graphic tantrums" and sometimes demonstrate a lack of control on the writer's part. The order of the words in a sentence should be arranged in such a way that they make the desired impression. Let the reader decide if the content is humorous or exciting on his or her own.
QUOTES AND ATTRIBUTION
55. Use attribution only once per paragraph.
56. Attribution is needed when policy change statements are made, when opinions are expressed or when "professional" opinions from physicians, scientists, engineers and others are used. Attribution is also needed with direct quotations and indirect quotations (paraphrased information).
57. Attribution is NOT needed when facts are commonplace and not subject to dispute or when they are accepted and historically true.
58. Attribution is usually noun + verb. Example: Jones said. It may be verb + noun when the source's title follows his or her name. Example: ... ," said John Jones, chairman of the department of English.
59. Attribution should be placed at the end of the first sentence when the quote is made up of two or more sentences.
60. When one quote follows another but the second one is from a different source, attribution for the second quote should be placed at the beginning of it. This helps the reader know immediately that a different person is speaking.
61. "Said" is the best word for attribution. Other words can be used, but they should accurately represent how something is said.
62. Use past tense verbs (said vs. says) for attribution in news stories.
63. Let quotes begin the paragraph. Show them off. Quote marks attract the reader's eye. Use them to encourage the reader to continue reading.
64. Avoid the use of partial quotes. Quote or paraphrase material. Don't mix the two.
65. Each time a different source is cited, start a new paragraph.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
66. Avoid using the same word twice in a sentence.
67. The optimum number of words to use in a sentence is 14 to 16. The average reader cannot comprehend a sentence with more than 40 words.
68. When writing becomes cumbersome, turn one long sentence into two or three shorter ones.
69. If a long sentence must be used, place a short sentence before and after it.
70. Don't have more than three consecutive prepositional phrases in a sentence. Prepositional phrases start with about, above, against, at, between, by, down, during, for, from, in, like, on, over, through, to, toward, under, up, until, upon, with ...
71. Count the words in a story's sentences. Sentence length should vary. Stories become dull when sentences are all the same length.
72. Don't start or end a sentence with "however." Start the sentence and then work "however" into it as soon as possible. This word is intended to cause an interruption in thought.
SPELLING
73. Use "Spell Check" on the computer.
74. Consult a dictionary. (Webster New World Dictionary is the preferred reference.)
75. Ask for help. Public library information desk personnel can be resourceful and helpful. Don't call university libraries for assistance.
STYLE
76. Consult the AP Stylebook and Libel Manual.
77. If the answer cannot be found in the AP Stylebook, consult a dictionary or a grammar book.
78. The order for writing when and where is time, day (date) and place.
79. Use the day of the week for six days before or after a specific day.
80. Use the date when it is seven or more days before or after a specific day.
81. On first reference, identify a person by his or her first and last names. On second reference, refer to the person by his or her last name only. On second and all other references, you don't need Miss, Mrs., Ms. or Mr. unless it's an obituary.
VOCABULARY
82. Use simple words. Never send the reader to the dictionary. Odds are the reader won't bother looking up the definition.
83. Words such as "thing" and "a lot" annoy some readers, bosses and executives. Avoid using them. (Note the correct spelling of "a lot.")
84. Be careful how the word "held" is used. Make sure the object can be "held" physically. Example: Weak ; The meeting will be held at noon Monday in Anthony Administration Building, Room 125. Better ; The meeting will be at noon Monday in ...
85. Avoid using words that qualify how someone feels, thinks or sees. "Little qualifiers" include the following: a bit, a little, sort of, kind of, rather, around, quite, very, pretty, much, in a very real sense, somewhat.
86. Avoid technical jargon unless 95 percent or more of the readers will understand it. If technical jargon is used and it won't be understood by the majority of readers, be sure to explain each term used.
87. Learn the difference between "affect" (usually a verb) and "effect" (usually a noun). Consult the AP Stylebook or a dictionary for more information.
88. Never say "yesterday" or "tomorrow." These words are confusing to readers. Use the day of the week. "Today" may be used.
89. Know the difference between its (no apostrophe for possessive pronoun) and it's (the contraction for it is). Examples: The dog has a thorn in its (possessive pronoun) paw. It's (contraction) time to go.
90. Know when to use "their" (possessive pronoun), "there" (adverb) and "they're" (the contraction for they are). Examples: It is their (possessive pronoun) project. The project is over there (adverb). They're (contraction) working together on the project.
91. Know the difference between whose (possessive pronoun) and who's (the contraction for who is). Examples: Whose (possessive pronoun) coat is this? Who's (contraction) going on the trip?
92. Know when to use "to" (preposition), "too" (adverb) and "two" (adjective). Examples: The advertising group is going to (preposition) Indianapolis. The public relations group wants to go, too (adverb). Some members are not going on the trip because it will take too (adverb) much time from their schedules. The two (adjective) groups will go to Indianapolis.
93. A person dies "unexpectedly," "apparently of a heart attack," "after a brief illness," "after a long illness," "of injuries suffered or sustained," "following or after an operation" or "of a disease."
94. In connection with suicides, it is best to say the person was "found dead" or "fell or plunged to his or her death" until the coroner completes his or her investigation. When suicide is reported, used died by suicide vs. committed suicide. For more guidelines on reporting and writing about suicide, go to www.suicidology.org/media/7.html.
95. In connection with arrests, write "arrested in connection with," "sought in connection with," "charged with" or "arrested on charges of." If a confession is involved but the confession has not been admitted as evidence in court, report only that the prisoner "has made a statement."
96. Injuries are "suffered or sustained," NOT received.
97. With murder, arrests are made "in connection with the death of." It should not be reported that a victim was murdered until someone is convicted of the crime. In obituaries, it may be said the victim was "killed" or "slain."
98. Remember two objects must be moving to "collide." If a vehicle runs into a parked one or an object, say the vehicle "struck" the stationary one.
99. Sometimes information cannot be verified. If doubt exists regarding a person's name, report the person "was listed by police as John Smith" or he "gave his name as John Smith." If a person is dead or unconscious and there is no identification, he or she is "unidentified," NOT unnamed. If there are questions about where a person lives, report "address not given" or "address unknown."
100. With fires, a building is "destroyed," NOT completely destroyed. Buildings also are damaged "lightly," "moderately" or "heavily." A fire may "gut" or "destroy" the interior of a building. To raze a building is to level it to the ground. (Compiled by Sheryl Swingley)
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