Some News Agencies

United Press International (UPI)

I  INTRODUCTION

United Press International (UPI), news-gathering organization based in Washington, D.C. Once the second-largest news agency in the United States behind the Associated Press (AP), UPI floundered financially beginning in the 1960s and declared bankruptcy in 1985. After a series of ownership changes and massive layoffs, the company emerged in the 1990s at a fraction of its former size.

UPI journalists supply news stories and photographs to newspapers throughout the world. Besides general-interest news, UPI also provides newspapers and World Wide Web sites with specialized reports on business, consumer issues, entertainment, health care, science, and sports. UPI Radio provides radio stations with hourly newscasts, sports and business reports, features, and other programming. UPI is called a wire service because it originally transmitted news to subscribers by wire cable. Today the company transmits news by satellite as well as by landlines.

II  FOUNDING AND EXPANSION

In 1907 newspaper publisher Edward Wyllis Scripps of Cincinnati, Ohio, founded the United Press (UP) by merging three existing news agencies. These agencies were the Newspaper Enterprise Association, a distributor of newspaper cartoons and feature articles; Publishers Press, an East Coast news service; and the Scripps-McRae Press Association, a news service for Midwest and West Coast newspapers. Scripps believed that the Associated Press, the largest news service in the United States, represented a monopoly that needed competition.

At its founding, UP had 369 subscribing newspapers in the United States and several more in Europe. In 1909 UP began serving customers in Japan, and it began offering news to South American subscribers a short time later. By 1914 UP had doubled its overall client base. By the 1930s UP had established bureaus in Central America, South America, Europe, and the Far East, and it served more than 1,100 newspapers in 45 countries.

            UP achieved several milestones, including the first news service tailored for radio broadcasters (1935), the first all-sports wire service (1945), and the first wire service to provide audio feeds to radio clients (1958). In 1957 UP won its first Pulitzer Prize, awarded for its coverage of the 1956 Hungarian revolt against a Soviet invasion. In 1958 UP merged with International News Service, a news service that American newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst had founded in 1909. The new company, named United Press International, had about 5,000 newspaper and broadcast clients and about 6,000 employees.

III  FINANCIAL TROUBLES

UPI began to lose money in the 1960s as many of its client newspapers folded or chose to subscribe only to AP. UPI also faced increased competition from London-based Reuters and from supplemental wire services of major newspapers. In 1982 the Scripps family—which had subsidized UPI’s losses for years—sold the wire service to two Tennessee business executives for the token payment of $1 and contributed $5 million to see the company through the transition. However, UPI continued to lose customers, and in 1985 it declared bankruptcy and began laying off a large number of employees.

From 1984 to 1986 UPI lost $40 million and went through two more ownership changes. In 1991, with fewer than 600 employees and debt of more than $60 million, the company again filed for bankruptcy protection. In 1992 the company was sold for about $4 million to Middle East Broadcasting Centre, a London-based television production company headed by Saudi Arabian businessman Sheikh Walid al-Ibrahim, a brother-in-law of Saudi Arabia’s King Fahd.

By the late 1990s UPI had closed most of its European bureaus and shifted its focus to selling news to radio stations and online services. In 1997 UPI’s former chief executive, Earl Brian, was convicted of bank fraud and conspiracy for hiding the company’s financial losses from auditors in the late 1980s. Also that year, veteran British journalist James Adams took over as chief executive officer of the company.

Associated Press (AP)

I. INTRODUCTION

Associated Press (AP), largest news-gathering organization in the world. With reporters and photographers working in more than 200 bureaus around the world, AP is one of the chief sources of news for the world’s press. It provides news stories, photographs, graphics, and broadcast services to more than 1700 newspapers and about 6000 radio and television stations in the United States. In addition, about 8500 media outlets outside the United States subscribe to AP information services. The organization’s news stories reach approximately one billion people each day. AP is called a wire service because it transmits news to subscribers by wire cable and by satellite. It is based in New York City.

The Associated Press is incorporated as a not-for-profit cooperative owned by more than 1500 member daily newspapers in the United States. The membership elects AP’s board of directors, which governs the organization.

II  EARLY HISTORY

In May 1848 representatives from six major New York City newspapers gathered to discuss how they could best take advantage of the telegraph, an emerging technology that made possible quick transmission of news over long distances. David Hale of the Journal of Commerce suggested a joint venture in which the papers would equally divide the high cost of receiving information by wire and share the news that arrived. The group formed the Associated Press of New York, with Hale serving as its first president.

In 1848 the organization landed its first paying customers: the Philadelphia Public Ledger and the Baltimore Sun. In 1849 AP established its first foreign bureau in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, the first port of call for ships travelling to North America from Europe. The bureau telegraphed the latest European news to New York City.

AP’s early success gave rise to several regional news associations, such as the Western Associated Press (WAP), the Northwestern Associated Press, and the New England Associated Press. During the 1860s several of these regional associations complained that AP of New York was overcharging them for European news. In the 1890s several regional associations abandoned the parent organization after AP of New York was caught funnelling news to the competing United Press (UP) for free (United Press was unrelated to United Press International, another AP competitor founded in 1907). In exchange, the owners of United Press had given large amounts of stock in their company to several of AP’s key executives.

Another flap occurred in 1898, when AP cut off service to a Chicago newspaper that also subscribed to a competing service. The Illinois Supreme Court settled the issue, ruling that AP, like a public utility, did not have the right to withhold its services. Shortly after the decision, AP reorganized as a non-profit cooperative, with members equally sharing costs.

III  RAPID GROWTH

Marines Raising Flag at Iwo Jima Five United States Marines and a Navy medic raise the American flag atop Mount Suribachi, the highest point on Iwo Jima, during the Battle of Iwo Jima on February 23, 1945. This photograph, taken by Associated Press photographer Joe Rosenthal, remains one of the most famous images of World War II. The photograph actually shows the second American flag-raising of the day. The Marines had raised the first flag on Iwo Jima more than two hours earlier, but they decided to replace it with a second, larger flag. Fighting with Japanese forces continued for nearly a month after this photograph was taken, leaving about 6,000 Marines and more than 20,000 Japanese soldiers dead by the battle’s end.Joe Rosenthal/AP/Wide World Photos 

            By 1914 AP’s membership had grown to about 100 newspapers. In 1922 AP won the first of its more than 40 Pulitzer Prizes, awarded for a series of stories about the Unknown Soldier at Arlington National Cemetery. The organization flourished during the 1920s and 1930s, starting a photo service and opening bureaus in many state capitals and throughout Europe. In 1935 AP began transmitting news photos by wire.

In response to the enormous growth of the radio broadcasting industry during the 1930s, AP launched a separate broadcast wire in 1941 that supplied written news to radio stations. The news was written in a special style designed for reading aloud. By 1942 more than 200 radio stations subscribed to the service.

AP started a sports wire in 1946, opened a book division in 1962, and launched a business and financial news service with Dow Jones & Company in 1967. In 1974 AP launched the AP Radio Network to deliver audio news, sports, and business programming to radio stations. During the 1970s AP’s Laserphoto system began delivering higher-quality photographs to newspapers over the wire, while its electronic darkroom enabled the storage of photos in digital form. AP’s ability to exploit advanced technology helped it stay ahead of its competitors, including United Press International and Reuters.

IV  RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

The 1980s and 1990s witnessed a flurry of innovations at AP. Using satellite technology, the Leaf Picture Desk digitally transmitted full-colour photographs to newspapers at the rate of 15 seconds per photo, compared to 40 minutes per photo with analog lines. Installed in newsrooms of member newspapers, the Leaf system enabled editors to select and manipulate full-colour photos from their computers. APTV, launched in 1994, delivered video footage of news events to major news organizations. In 1997 AP made its extensive electronic picture archive accessible to subscribers through the World Wide Web.

Reuters Group PLC

I  INTRODUCTION

Reuters Group PLC, one of the world’s largest suppliers of news and financial information. Through its worldwide network of about 2,000 journalists, Reuters provides news stories, photographs, graphics, and video footage to newspapers, television broadcasters, Internet sites, and other media. Although best known to the public as a news agency, Reuters earns the vast majority of its revenues by electronically transmitting financial market data—such as currency exchange rates, stock prices, and commodity prices—to bankers, traders, brokers, investors, and corporations all over the world. The data are constantly updated as financial markets change. Reuters also sells software that allows traders to analyze financial data and to make transactions directly from a computer terminal. The company has headquarters in London, England.

II  EARLY HISTORY

Reuters was founded by Paul Julius Reuter, a former bookseller from Germany. In 1849 Reuter started an independent news agency in Paris, but it failed after several months. The following year he decided to exploit a gap in telegraph service from Paris, France, and Berlin, Germany. He began using carrier pigeons to fly news about European stock prices between Aachen, Germany, where the German telegraph line ended, and Brussels, Belgium, where the Belgian line began. In 1851 Reuter immigrated to London, which was emerging as a hub in the global telegraphic network. There he set up a telegraph agency in an office near the London Stock Exchange. Initially he provided brokers in London and Paris with opening and closing stock prices, but he soon expanded the service to include general news dispatches.

By the late 1850s Reuter had established offices throughout Europe and was supplying news to major newspapers, including the London Times. In 1865 he incorporated the business as Reuter’s Telegram Company. The company expanded beyond Europe as the British Empire extended telegraphic cable to the Middle East, India, China, Australia, and Africa. The transmission of private telegrams within the empire became an important source of revenue for Reuter’s company.

Reuter retired in 1878 and passed control of the company to his son, Herbert. In 1916 Roderick Jones, manager of the company’s South African news operation, became executive head and part owner of the company and changed its name to Reuters Ltd. In the 1920s Reuters began using teleprinters (see Telegraph: Teleprinting) to distribute news to London newspapers and radios to transmit news to Europe.

In 1941 Jones was ousted by the Press Association, an association of British newspapers that had become the majority shareholder of Reuters in 1925. Jones had been knighted for his service as head of the British Department of Propaganda during World War I (1914-1918), and the Press Association believed that Jones’s close ties to the British government had compromised Reuters’s independence as a news agency. The Press Association protected editorial independence by establishing a share structure designed to prevent any one individual or interest from gaining control of the company.

III  EXPANDING SERVICES

Following World War II (1939-1945), Reuters faced growing competition from American news agencies, such as the Associated Press and United Press International. In response, it expanded its financial-information services. In 1964 Reuters introduced Stockmaster, a system that allowed users to view stock prices from around the world on a computer screen. In the following years the company continued to add leading-edge information technology services. The Reuters Monitor, introduced in 1973, displayed currency exchange rates on computer monitors in real time—that is, reflecting market conditions at any given moment. The Reuters Monitor Dealing service, launched in 1981, allowed foreign currency traders to carry out transactions directly from their computer terminals. Profits rose from £51,000 ($143,000) in 1963 to £16 million ($32 million) in 1981. By 1989 profits reached £284 million ($422 million).

In the 1990s Reuters continued to develop information systems, including multimedia and online services. It built Reuters Television (formerly Visnews) into a leading international TV news agency that provides news, sports, business, and entertainment video footage via satellite to broadcasters in more than 90 countries. In 1994 Reuters bought Quotron, a stock quote service, from consumer banking company Citicorp. The company debuted its Reuters Markets Service 3000, which offers specialized financial information, in 1996.

In 1999 Reuters joined forces with longtime rival Dow Jones & Company to combine their online news databases. The Dow Jones Reuters Business Interactive (later renamed Factiva) offers historical news from the Wall Street Journal, news from the Dow Jones and Reuters news wires, and information from more than 7,000 global business news sources.

The Media and the Gulf War

In a remote war zone, the news media are the eyes and ears of the world. But if the military carefully controls access to information, what can the public learn? In this article from Collier’s Year Book, respected American journalist Bill Kovach explains how the Persian Gulf War of 1991 put this question to the test. Many journalists, provided with carefully screened information and shepherded around in carefully controlled “pools,” believed they were unable to portray the war as it really was. The military, concerned over the security risks posed by instant media coverage, insisted the restraints were essential. The Gulf War was remarkably short-lived, but the conflict between the media and the military may persist for a long time.

The Media and the Gulf War

By Bill Kovach

                               

Journalists looking back in the summer of 1991 at the record of the Gulf War came to the distressing conclusion that, while Saddam Hussein seemed to have weathered the military assault, the press corps of the United States had been routed. The full extent of U.S. military control of the media during the brief war was described this way in a report issued June 25 by a committee of representatives of some of the largest American news organizations:

"In the end, the combination of security review and the use of the pool system as a form of censorship made the Gulf War the most undercovered major conflict in modern American history. In a free society, there is simply no place for such overwhelming control by the government…. Television, print, and radio alike start with one sobering realization: There was virtually no coverage of the Gulf ground war until it was over."

From the first day of the U.S.-led military response to Saddam Hussein's occupation of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, a central concern of the military was the ability to control the psychological atmosphere within which the operation would be conducted. That concern was dealt with by an elaborate system of control of press coverage of military operations.

The Role of Technology

In one important way the Gulf War was a radical departure for both the press and the military. Communications technology had made possible the instant transmission of pictures of events worldwide. The ability of news organizations such as the Cable News Network (CNN) to send real-time information around the world 24 hours a day via satellite presented new challenges and opportunities. This innovation raised military fears that tactical and strategic information would be revealed to the enemy.

As the conflict unfolded, virtually the only press coverage of the war not subject to U.S. military control were the televised broadcasts of missile attacks on Baghdad, Tel Aviv, and Riyadh, which the military was powerless to block from journalists' view. Peter Arnett of CNN, who remained in Baghdad when other Western journalists left, sent home gripping images of a city being slowly taken apart by laser-guided missiles and bombs. His broadcasts, some of which showed the war's effect on civilians, became the focus of bitter debates in the United States over the role of journalists in wartime. Meanwhile, Saddam Hussein used communications technology for propaganda purposes; although clumsy with the medium, he tried several times to win support around the world for his cause through televised interviews and appeals.

In effect, 20th-century generals reacted to communications innovations the same way Civil War generals reacted to the introduction of the telegraph cable: They saw news reports as weapons in an arsenal and sought absolute control over the information journalists could obtain and transmit. The system put in place in the deserts of the Middle East allowed the military to decide who would be allowed to cover the war, by controlling credentials, and to determine what events could be covered.

From Grenada to the Gulf

This new press policy had been tested during the U.S. invasion of Grenada in 1986. Combat there was confined to an isolated Caribbean island completely sealed off from the press. No visual image of the war reached the public which was not, in effect, government propaganda taken and provided to the media by the military. Despite press complaints and Pentagon studies following the Grenada invasion, when U.S. troops were sent to Panama in December 1989, journalists were allowed into Panama only as part of a military pool. The pool itself was kept from the scenes of combat. It was an elaboration of the Panama plan that was transported with U.S. troops to Saudi Arabia as part of Operation Desert Storm.

Aside from being able to observe the missile pyrotechnics, journalists assigned to cover the Gulf War had little access to military action or personnel. They had almost no freedom of movement. Press coverage of U.S. military units in the Gulf area was limited to "pool coverage," in which groups of journalists were escorted by military officers and produced stories to be shared by all news organizations accredited to the region—as many as 1,400 at one point in the war. Military escorts decided where the pool would go and had to be present for all interviews. In many cases they cut off interviews considered critical of official policy. Stories written by these pools were still subjected to censorship, which in many instances was political, aimed at removing information embarrassing to the military. Furthermore, the censorship system delayed most press reports for so long that they were useless when eventually transmitted.

Frustrated journalists, called "unilaterals," tried to report independently of the pools and were subject to arrest. Nearly 50 journalists from the United States were detained, some arrested, for trying to avoid military press restraints. Several, including CBS newsman Bob Simon and three colleagues, were captured and held for a time by Iraqi troops.

As a substitute for reports from the field of combat, military briefing officers met with the press daily. Similar briefings held each afternoon during the Vietnam War had been dubbed the "Five O'Clock Follies" because the military used them for self-serving pronouncements and often misleading information. They were largely avoided by experienced journalists in favor of independent reporting on troops in the field. With that alternative forbidden to journalists in the Gulf War, most information delivered to the American public from the Middle East came from the official military briefings.

What the Public Saw

The resulting reports formed an image of warfare from which the human cost had been surgically eliminated. Film released for television was of "smart bombs" guided literally through the front doors of military bunkers by laser beams. The language used was equally bloodless. Military targets such as tanks and armored personnel carriers were listed as "KIAs" (killed in action) when destroyed by bombs, but the toll on human beings inside them was referred to as "collateral damage." Unreported were the costs and consequences of the war in human terms. What was transmitted from the Gulf often served to mask reality rather than shed light on what was happening. Not only was military security protected by this control of the field of information; it was later disclosed that the military had used the press to fool Saddam Hussein.

Misleading the media in order to mislead lraq took several forms. Early in the buildup preceding the war the government released long lists of military units called to Gulf duty. In many cases only a few individuals of the units named were actually activated. The result was to create the sense of a much larger force projected into the region much earlier than was the case.

In addition, there were elaborate press briefings replete with tactical details of a planned amphibious assault from the Persian Gulf and a frontal assault across the desert into Kuwait. Literally hundreds of stories based on these briefings were printed and aired, with exhaustive graphics and maps. With these reports the military hoped to keep the bulk of the Iraqi forces pinned down in the center and right flank (which is, in fact, where they remained), while a massive movement of allied forces to the left outflanked and eventually encircled the Iraqis.

Media Reaction

The combination of manipulation for military purposes and for political advantage created a constant tension, building distrust between the media and the military.

Journalists react strongly to military justifications of such manipulation on the basis of the need to protect tactical and strategic information. The military's own studies of the role of the press in Vietnam had concluded that allowing journalists virtually free access to troops and not censoring their reports had not resulted in military failure. Army Colonel Harry Summers conducted a study for the Army War College of the relationship between the military, the media, and the American people during the Vietnam War. His findings were published in a book entitled On Strategy, which is used as a text in the military war and staff colleges. Colonel Summers says that journalists were not responsible for losing the Vietnam War and that no serious breaches of security occurred. He concluded that America's civilian leaders lost the war, because they never clarified the political objectives and as a result could not retain public support.

Looking Back

As a result of press restrictions in the Gulf War the public received a carefully distorted version of events. The full costs and consequences of the war became clear only afterward. For example, only after the war did the public learn that 90 percent of all bombs dropped were unguided bombs, most of which missed their targets, and that Patriot missiles (launched to intercept Iraqi Scuds) may have caused as much damage in Israel as the Scuds themselves.

The U.S. war strategy was extraordinarily successful in holding down immediate civilian casualties. But Iraq's inability to function as an organized society, because its industrial and commercial infrastructure were destroyed, meant that the effects on the civilian population would continue far into the future.

While this strategy was being pursued in the region, the press was reporting President George Bush's words assuring the world: "We have no argument with the people of Iraq, … and we are not trying to systematically destroy the foundations of daily living there."

A team of doctors from the Harvard University School of Public Health who visited Iraq shortly after the war agreed with a United Nations assessment that the country had suffered "apocalyptic destruction." They projected that at least 100,000 more Iraqis, mostly children, would die as a result of destruction of the country's hospital, health, and sanitation systems.

Journalists' Failings

Not all of the fault for incomplete and misleading coverage of the war rests with the military. Journalists themselves failed to come to grips with their own technology. Instant news puts additional burdens on journalists to introduce their craft into the process. Journalism is the act of choosing from competing information that which most accurately and completely reflects an event. This includes editing for balance and accuracy. It means presenting information in context, relating it to other facts and events.

Larry Grossman, former president of NBC-TV News, noted in the summer issue of Nieman Reports: "On the first day of the war, a CNN correspondent reported that Iraq's Scud launchers had all been destroyed, that Saddam Hussein's elite Republican Guard had been 'decimated,' and that the entire Iraqi Air Force had been wiped out. Warheads of incoming Scuds were said to have been filled with nerve gas. The Iraqi military was reported to have had nuclear missiles ready to launch." These false reports were largely the result of careless misinterpretations and extrapolations from information provided by the military.

Future Conflict

Although the conflict with Iraq lasted only a few weeks, the conflict between the military and the media will continue. The outlines of the future conflict can be seen in a lawsuit filed during the war by a dozen news organizations, including The Nation and The Village Voice, in a U.S. district court, charging that the restrictions on the media violated their First and Fifth Amendment rights. Several prominent individuals joined the suit, including authors E. L. Doctorow and William Styron and the Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter of the war in Cambodia, Sydney Schanberg. The case was eventually dismissed as moot, since the war was over before it could be decided. But the judge ruled on two issues important for the future. First, he accepted the right of the parties to sue the Department of Defense. Second, he held that such actions as restricting the press from the field of conflict are subject to judicial review even in wartime.

As technology continues to improve communications hardware, conflicts between the military and the media may be even more formidable. Satellite phones are now on the shelf that can be carried into the field and used by reporters to call instantly from almost anywhere in the world. Television cameras the size of penlights and transmitting equipment that fits into a briefcase will soon be available. Controlling a press contingent made up of hundreds thus equipped will be virtually impossible.

In the next war the military may decide the only hope for control is to move into the home office and tell editors what information coming into their buildings they may or may not publish or show. Short of total war, such an action would touch off the ultimate constitutional confrontation between media and government.

About the author: Bill Kovach is a veteran journalist who is curator of the Nieman Foundation for Journalism at Harvard University, former Washington Bureau chief of the New York Times, and former editor of the Atlanta Journal and Constitution.

Source: 1992 Collier’s Year Book.

Maureen Dowd Has A Thought By Paul Walfield February 14, 2003

Columnist and self-proclaimed know-it-all Maureen Dowd had a thought, and began to write her article "Pass The Duct Tape," for the February 12, 2003 edition of the New York Times. She seemed to sense that because Osama bin Laden in an audio tape had confirmed what the Bush Administration had been saying all along, that the terrorist group al Qaeda would align itself with the Iraqi regime, maybe the Administration was on to something, but, alas, she couldn't put two and two together. Rather, she believes President Bush had been "rescued" by the mastermind of the 9-11 attack on America. Forgetting that President Bush and Secretary of State Colin Powell had made the case for a connection between the two. She simply scoffed at the evidence presented at the UN about the connection; Ms. Dowd would rather trash the Administration and see Osama jumping into action because America gave him the opportunity. Ms. Dowd in all her wisdom determined that even though Osama declared his solidarity with Iraq, she preferred to look at his connections with Syria and Saudi Arabia without explaining why that matters or is relevant to the reality and danger of terrorists supporting and being supported by Saddam Hussein. Forgetting the adage "the enemy of my enemy is my friend," Ms. Dowd chooses to lament the former hostility of Osama for Saddam, and the "present" alliance of the two. Rather than expanding any thought of placing responsibility for America's current relations with Iraq or even the al Qaeda terrorists with Saddam or Osama, she chooses to blame the American President instead. While admitting that bin Laden was squarely with Iraq and against the United States, like most folks who can't allow reality to interfere with their "beliefs," Ms. Dowd continues to argue without sound judgment. Referring to bin Laden's own words, "He barely mentioned the Iraqi leader and seemed to be holding his nose when he gave permission to his Qaeda brethren to fight "the Crusaders" alongside Saddam's Baath Party." Ms. Dowd's befuddlement over the alliance between terrorists and Iraq does not change the fact, that it is a fact. So, for the Left it requires a shift in blame. Treating the alliance made in hell as a self-fulfilling prophecy of the Bush administration, Ms. Dowd need not admit she was wrong or that the Bush administration had been right all along. Rather she can point to her preconceived notion that there had never been cooperation before between the two, "Saddam has no proven record of sharing weapons with Al Qaeda." It appears that for the Left, now that bin Laden admits to allying al Qaeda with Iraq it is "true," but when their own government said it, it wasn't. Taking the word of a terrorist or tyrant is easy for the Left, taking the word of an American President or Secretary of State is not, unless of course, they are Democrats. Undisturbed by the setback, Ms. Dowd attacks the Administration for exposing the truth, "So the Bushies no longer care if Osama sends a coded message to his thugs as long as he stays on message for the White House." Forgetting that al-Jazeera, the Middle Eastern television Network was going to air the tape in its entirety and that America was put on alert for an already planned terrorist attack raising the threat level to orange. Ms. Dowd's pathological disdain for the Bush Whitehouse will not allow her to accept that not only was the Bush administration right all along, but that action against the threats posed by terrorists and rogue nations is a cause worth fighting for. Rather, Ms Dowd opines that "Osama might be perversely encouraging America in this war." Explaining that if we remove the Saddam regime, occupy Iraq, and install a Democratic form of government bringing freedoms heretofore unknown to the Iraqi people, we are simply playing into the hands of the terrorists and they win, we do not. Speaking of perverse logic, Ms. Dowd believes that because America and Osama want a regime change in Iraq, America seeking democracy and freedom for the Iraqi people and Osama seeking the reverse, we have fallen into bin Laden's trap. So much for Maureen having thoughts. Finally, Ms. Dowd, referring to the democratization of Iraq as a "model kitchen of democracy." However, she believes it might get messy and cost a lot. Of course, for Ms. Dowd, having a tyrant with weapons of mass destruction who gasses and tortures his own people isn't messy enough to do something about. Ms. Dowd and the Whitehouse do have something in common though, they both see the use of Duct tape as not being adequate to protect the American people in the event of attacks by terrorists or rogue nations. However, the Bush administration plans on taking action, Ms. Dowd just whines.   Paul Walfield is a freelance writer and member of the State Bar of California. Paul can be contacted at paul.walfield@cox.net

Principle of Journalism

Principle Press and Practice

The key word of the principle of journalism is democracy. k|hftGq ljlxg cj:yfdf :jtGq kqsfl/tfnfO{ ckgfpg sl7g ePsf] x'gfn] cfwf/e"t tTjsf] ?kdf k|hftGqnfO{ lng] ul/G5 . ljZjdf lgle{s kqsfl/tf hxf“ km:6fPsf] 5, lglj{sNk Toxf“ k|hftGq 5 . k|hftGq eg]sf] Jojxf/ xf] . pQ/bfloTj lng] / k'/f ug]{ kl/kf6L g} k|hftflGqs cEof; xf] . hltv]/ ;}4flGts ?kdf k|hftGq Jojxf/df nfu" x'G5 Tof] zf;gnfO{ cfbz{ dflgG5 . c?sf] ljrf/sf] sb/ k|hftflGqs cEof;df dfq x'G5 . o; Joj:yfdf x's'dL z}nL sdhf]/ / dxTjk"0f{ ljrf/sf] e"ldsf alnof] /xG5 .

It is not easy to define Democracy. It is a huge political system. Mainly it is defining as; for the people, by the people to the people; where every people have responsibilities to the country.

Mass communication can be effective only in democratic political system. The democratic constitution provides right to information, speech, publish and so on. We can find the respect of public right only in democratic political system g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwfg @)$& n] wf/f !@ / !# df k|:6};“u jfs tyf k|sfzgsf] :jtGqtfsf] k|Tofe't u/]sf] 5 . wf/f !^ n] ;"rgfsf] xssf] Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . To;}n] This constitution is defined as one of the best constitution in the world for press freedom. Whither the constitution provides more, the system of implication is worse. That is why Nepalese press is not getting freedom as the constitution has provided. The provision of press in constitution is stander; the laws are nice but implication system is worse. And media is not in sound system of freedom.

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Democracy, being the key factor of Journalism, Nepalese press played a vital role in the period of PANCHAYAT. That was anti constituting behaviors; which made media difficult to survive. As the Democracy restored in 2046, mass media has got totally freedom. 'The big attendances of journalism shows the future of democracy in Nepal is secure.' Kamal Thapa, minister for information and communication, 6 may 2004.

cj:yf clxn] klg ;'lw|Psf] 5}g . dfcf]jfbLn] u/]sf] ;z:q ljb|f]x kl5 b'a} kIf -/fHo / dfcf]jfbL_ af6 kqsf/ kLl8t eO/x]sf 5g\ . o:tf] åGådf /fHo / ljb|f]xL b'a}sf] b'Zdgsf] ?kdf ldl8of /xG5 . cem kfP;Dd oL b'a} kIfn] ldl8ofsf] b'?kof]u u5{g\ . g;s]kl5 ldl8ofdfly dfly g} wfjf af]Ng yfN5g\ . /fHo / u}//fHo kIfaf6 kqsf/sf] ckx/0f, j]kQf / dfl/g]qmdn] jt{dfg g]kfn kqsfl/tfsf] Oltxf;sf] clt g} dxTjk"0f{ sfnv08 aGg k'u]sf] 5 . /fHo / u}/ /fHokIfsf] propaganda tool sf ?kdf ;+rf/ dfWod clt g} k|of]u ePsf 5g\ . Tof];“u} kLl8t x'g]qmd klg al9/x]sf] 5 .

Whither media are free technically, there are many factors which control it. The political condition, social structure, economic condition, and the investment on media are the major factors that control media.

Main stream media applies similarity at presenting news, views, and programs. In Nepalese context, the ownership is the main obstacle for fair news. There is a popular word JP (hfg} kg]{ ) which mean must be publish or broadcast. That type of ordered comes from management, not from editorial board, for the interests of publisher or advertiser. When the JP news publish or broadcast, the another news can not be adjust, and audience may lose importance. That mean sometime the most valuable news becomes valueless and valueless becomes valuable.

kqsf/ lszf]/ g]kfnsf] egfO{df …uPsf] !# jif{df g]kfnL kqsfl/tfdf w]/} ljsf; ePklg ;Dkfbssf] kbdfly clt g} cjd"Nog ePsf] 5Ú ;DkfbsLo / Joj:yfksLo åGån] of] cjlwdf w]/} ;DkfbsLo ;d"x g]kfnL kqsfl/tfn] km]l//x\of] .

If there is not equality, the meaning of democracy become meaning less. The equal participation plays big role in democracy. In this context, media should be responsible for society. Media can find the conclusion of suggestions form the various participation of public. If media gives priority to officials or famous persons only, we do not find local participation to solve problems or to highlight issues; because media is the voice of voiceless.

;}4flGts cfwf/df JofVof ePklg g]kfnL kqsfl/tfdf kqsf/sf] e"ldsf klg d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ cj:yf 5 . kqsfl/tfsf ;+u7g / tLgsf Jojxf/ gs]nfpg] xf] eg] ;Dk"0f{ bf]ifsf] eflubf/ cfly{s / /fhgLlts kIf x'g]u5{ . ldl8ofnfO{ cfly{s / /fhgLlts kIfaf6 ePsf bjfj lj?4 ;To kqsfl/tf ug]{n] lj/f]w u/]sf 5g\ t < ;fob} kfOG5 . cGo If]qsf] h:t} Joj;flostf ckgfpg g;Sbf kqsf/ cfkm} k|hftGq / Joj;flostfsf] ljkIfdf plePsf] efg x'G5 .

Media must be responsible for democratic practices. It reduces the distance between one people to another and time. It breaks the ice in the time of soundless. That is why it is defined as the first draft of history. t/ Oltxf;sf] klxnf] cIf/ unt ?kdf JofVof eO/x]sf] t 5}g < /fHo jf u}/ /fHokIfaf6 kLl8t ePsf kqsf/n] o:tf] kL8f kfpg'df cfk\mg} sdhf]/L 5}gg\ t < Ps k6s ;f]Rg'kg]{ cj:yf cfO;s]sf] 5 . ;To, tYo / ljZj;gLotfnfO{ cfwf/ dfGg' kqsfl/tfsf] l;4fGt xf] . t/, ;To / tYonfO{ cfk\mgf] kmfObf cg';f/ JofVof ug]{ kl/kf6Lsf] ljsf; xfd|} kqsfl/tfdf ePsf] 5 . o; cy{df xfdL x/]s lbgsf] ;To Oltxf;df /x]/ unt Oltxf;sf] :j?k tof/ ul//x]sf klg x'g;S5f}+ . Oltxf; lxhf]sf] eGbf cfhsf] dxTjk"0f{ x''g'k5{ eGg] cfwf/df kqsfl/tf x'g'kg]{ xf] t/ ePsf] 5}g .

There are two types of democracy

1.     Electoral democracy

2.     liberal democracy

Electoral: In this democracy, we can find the technical sides but not the values of democracy. In this type, election is the main thing. Somebody wins and does nothing. In this system, technically looks everything is correct but hides many criminal cases. g]kfnsf] kqsfl/tfnfO{ o:t} k|hftGqsf] ?kdf JofVof u/] ldN5 . /fhgLlt cl:y/tf o;s} pbfx/0f xf] . k|hftGqdf ;dfg ;xeflutf x'G5 . o;}nfO{ h8 ljifo agfP/ ;+;bdf ( l;6 cf]u6]sf] /fhgLlts bnn] xltof/ p7fP/ lx+;fTds cfGbf]ng yfNof]] . ;dfg cj;/ gkfPs} cfwf/df w]/} hfltut ;+u7gn] lx+;fsf] ;fy lbO/x]sf 5g\ . Now that minority group is the most powerful political party in Nepal.

Liberal: it carries the norms and values of democracy. The ethical question rises in this system. Everyone fulfill their duties and becomes responsible to society. We find these types of democracy in western countries where the citizens become proud paying tax to government.

Media adopts the norms and values of liberal democracy and provides equality and immediate justices. Gf]kfnsf] ;Gb{enfO{ oxf“ hf]8\g] xf] eg] k|hftGq k'g{k|flKtsf !$ jif{df electoral democracy sf] dfq k|of]u ePsf] b]lvG5 . ;dfg ;xeflutf sd, pQ/bfloTjljlxgtf, b08lxgtf / o:t} k|Zgx¿ k|z:t} p7]sf] kfOG5 . jf:tjdf k|hftGq ljt[i0ff hufpg] sfd electoral democracy n] g} u/]sf] b]lvG5 . dlNns cfof]usf] k|ltj]bgk|ltsf] j]jf:tf jf lx+;fTds aGg nfu]sf] ;+o'Qm hgdf]rf{sf] $) a'“b] dfukq, pbf/ k|hftGqdf o;/L j]j:tfsf] ljifo x'g] lyPgg\ . ;f] dfukqsf] * cf}+ j'bfdf ljb]zL clZnn l;g]df / kqklqsfnfO{ k|ltjGw ug'{kg]{ tyf @# cf++} j'“bfdf jfs :jtGqtf / ;/sf/L dfWod :jfoQ x'g'kg]{ pNn]v 5 . ;fdfGo gful/s 5f]8f}+, ;+;bdf k'?if ;f+;bn] ;'Ts]/L eQf / cf}ifwf]krf/ ;d]t lng] ljZjs} cgf}7f] k|hftflGqs cEof; ePsf] d'n'sdf k|]; eg] Tolt u}/ lhDd]af/ eg] ePsf] 5}g . ljleGg ;GwL÷ ;Demf}tf / e|i6frf/dfly k|];sf] gh/ k/]sf 5g\ . To;n] TolQs} k|efj klg kf/]sf] 5 . t/, h'g qmddf x'g'kYof]{ Tof] eg] 5}g . cem}, /fHo k|0ffnLdf ljleGg r'xfj6 sfod} 5g\ .

Media must be responsible during national crisis. According to Defleur Dennis, the crisis like war, reporting some kind of information can give the enemy a clear advantage. He writes in Understanding mass communication; 'Recognizing the danger facing their nation, American have generally accepted some sort of censorship during wars.'

In our case, do media play such role? Journalists are being arrested\killed by both government and Maoist, because of their opposite news. Both sides accusing that media are providing information to their enemies. What responsibilities do media have during the national crisis like Nepal? What would be the press agenda on peace building or conflict resolution? jf:tjdf xfdL sensational news lbg]qmddf dfq 5}gf}+ t < xfdLn] sensational news lbg'sf] p2]Zo Jofkfl/s d'gfkmf klg w]/} xf] eGg ;lsGg . ljj/0fnfO{ cfwf/ dfg]/ tof/ ePsf ;+rf/ ;fdfu|Ln] ;d:of ;dfwfgsf] b[li6sf]0fdf sfd} u/]sf 5}gg\ . ;+s6sf] cj:yfdf media sf] Ph]08f to x'g g;Sg' csf]{ b'efUok"0f{ s'/f xf] .  The senior Maoist leader Dr. Baburam Bhattarai's reaction was as follow,' Nepalese media was not serious as the time of peace talk. They just follow the small things; do not give interest in solution.' According to him during the second government-Maoist peace talk, media coverage was sacrificially. Psflt/ :jtGq kqsfl/tfsf] kIfdf atfpg] dfcf]jfbL kIfn] kqsf/ xTof, wDsL / lj:yfkgf u/fpg] sfd /f]s]sf] 5}g . o; cfwf/df pgLx¿ klg r's]sf] dfGg ;S5f}+ .

g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] ljsf;nfO{ x]g]{ xf] eg] @))& ;fn kmfu'g * ut]b]lv g} lghL If]qaf6 klxnf] b}lgs klqsf cfjfhsf] k|sfzg k|f/De ePsf] kfOG5 . jf:tjdf /fhgLlts ljsf;qmdn] ;~rf/sf] ljsf;qmddf ;a}eGbf dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf v]n]sf] x'G5 . o;sf] ljsfzqmdnfO{ xfdLn] kf“r efudf /fv]/ JofVof ubf{ pko'Qm x'G5 .

!_ k"j{ k|hftGqsfn M of] cjlw g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] k|f/Desfn dflgG5 . lj;+ !()* df h+ujfxfb'/n] a]nfotaf6 NofPsf] lu4] k|]; g} klxnf] k|]; xf] . lj; !($# df ef/taf6 df]lt/fd e§sf] ;lqmotfdf uf]vf{ ef/t hLjg klxnf] magazine sf ?kdf k|sflzt ePsf] kfOG5 . To:t} df]lt/fd e§n] g} :yfkgf u/]sf] kz'klt 5fkfvfgf klxnf] lghL 5fkfvfgf dflgG5 . !(%* df k|sflzt uf]/vfkq ;fKtflxsnfO{ g} g]kfnL kqsfl/tfdf klxnf] ;dfrf/d"ns klqsfsf ?kdf lnOG5 . of] klqsf @))) df cfOk'Ubf ;ftfdf b'O{ k6s / @)!& ;fndf b}lgs eof] . of] cjlwdf ef/taf6 y'k|} ;flxlTos / /fhgLlts kqklqsf k|sflzt eP . /f0ffsfn ePsfn] k|sfzg ug]{ clwsf/ lyPg . lj;+ @))) sf] z'?jftdfdfq g]kfnLn] lghL /]l8of] /fVg kfpg] eP . @))# df klxnf] k6s ljB't k|flws/0faf6 /]l8of] k/LIf0f k|;f/0f eof] . oltv]/ ehg ahfP/ /]l8of] k|;f/0f ul/GYof] .

@_ @))& b]lv @)!& ;fn M @))& ;fn kmfu'g * ut] b]lv lghL If]qsf] b}lgs klqsfsf ?kdf cfjfh k|sflzt eof] . of] k|hftGqdf dfq k|]; /xg;S5 eGg] ;}4flGts cfwf/ k'i7L ug]{ k|sfzg lyof] . k|hftGqkl5 PSsf;L ;~rf/ If]qdf af9L g} cfof] . jfs :jtGqtf ePsfn] ;VofTds ?kdf w]/} k|sfzg k|f/De eP . /]l8of] g]kfnn] lg/Gt/tf kfof] . & ;fnkl5 cfw'lgs lzIff, ljsf;sf k"jf{wf/ aGg] cleofg rNof] . cfly{s ljsf;sf] qmd klg a9\of] . t/, ;~rf/sf dfWoddf ePsf] PSsf;Lsf] j[l4n] stflt/ hfg] eGg] af6f] kfPg . klqsf btf{ x'g' / aGb x'g' :jefljs klqmof eP .

#= @)!& b]lv @)#^ M oltv]/ cfOk'Ubf ef}lts k"jf{wf/ w]/} tof/ eO;s]sf lyP . k|hftGq lyPg . k~rfotL Joj:yfsf lj?4 n]Vg kfOGgYof] . s'g} klg ;do klqsf hkmt / aGb g} ul/Gy] . oltv]/ /fhgLlts bnk|]l/t kqklqsf e"ldut ?kdf lg:sGy] . ;~rf/ dfWodx¿ cfly{s cefjsf sf/0f ?U0f lyP . ;dofgs'n ljsf; eg] lj:tf/} ePklg eO/x]sf lyP . /]l8of]sf] ljsf; ug]{ qmddf @)!* ;fndf u|fld0f If]qdf >j0fs]Gb|sf] :yfkgf eof] . o;n] klg /]l8of]sf] ljsf;df ;3fp k'¥ofof] .

$= @)#^ b]lv @)$^ M k~rfotsfn g} ePklg of] cjlw kqsfl/tfsf nflu t'ngfTds ?kdf /fd|f] ;do lyof] . of] aLrdf

, c:ktfn, :s'n cflbsf] w]/} ljsf; eO;s]sf] lyof] . hgdt ;+u|xsf] 3f]if0ffkl5 ;/sf/L d'vkq uf]/vfkq ;d]t t6:y ?kdf lg:sof] . ;+;bsf] ultljlw k|sfzg ug{ kfOg] eof] . zfxL k|];sf] cfof]un] lbPsf ;'emfa cg';f/ k|];dflysf lgoGq0f qmdzM v'lDrP . of] cjlwsf klqsfx¿df Ps} JolQm ;Dkfbs / k|sfzs /xGy] . /fhgLlt k|]l/t kqsfl/tfn] :yfg cf]u6]sf] lyof] . partisan press sf] ljsf; eO/x]sf] lyof] .

%= @)$^ b]lv otfsf] cjlwdf b]zsf ;a} kIfeGbf ljsl;t ePsf] ;~rf/ g} xf] . ;+ljwfgdf g} pNn]lvt k|]; :jtGqtfnfO{ ljZjs} pbf/ dWo] Ps eg]/ JofVof ePsf] 5 . cfly{s ;fdflhs / z}lIfs If]qdf pNn]Vo km8\sf] dfg{ ;s]sf sf/0f lghL If]qn] pNn]Vo km8\sf] df/]sf] 5 . lghL If]qaf6 dfq xf]Og cGt/fli6«o If]qsf] nufgL ;d]t ;+rf/df eO/x]sf 5g\ . ljsf;;+u} o:tf nufgLn] ljjfb klg lgDTofO/x]sf] 5g\ . ;"rgf k|ljlwdf ePsf] ljZjJofkL ljsf;sf] k|efj ;x/ s]Gb|Lt ePklg al9/x]sf] 5 . u|fdL0f e]unfO{ 5f]8\g] xf] eg] ;x/L hLjg / ;+rf/ ljZjsf] s'g} klg d'n'seGbf g]kfndf sd 5}g . a9\bf] ;x/Ls/0f, z}lIfs If]qdf cfPsf] kl/j{tg / ;+rf/ ;fd|fHojfbsf] k|efj ultn};+u kl/;s]sf] 5 . of] cjlwdf kqklqsf h;/L cfP/ To;/L g} aGb x'g] qmd klg a9]sf] 5 . @)%@ ;fndf cfPsf tLgj6f bL Pe/]i6 x]/fN8, >L ;u/dfyf / nf]skq /fhgLlt tyf cfly{s lvrftfgLsf sf/0f @ jif{d} @)%$ ;fndf aGb eP . To:t} >L b]p/fnL k|sflzt eof] / aGb klg eof] . kl5Nnf] ;dodf :k];6fOd 6'8] / :k];6fOd b}lgs aGb ePsf 5g\ . To:t} /fhwfgL, lxdfno 6fOD; klg d'l:sn}n] k|sfzg eO/x]sf] kfOG5 . Psfw kqklqsf afx]s kqsf/n] lgoldt kfl/>lds kfpg ;ls/x]sf 5}gg\ .

1.   Democracy

/fhgLlts Jo:yfsf sf/0f ;~rf/ s;/L a9\g] xf] lgSof}n x'g]u5{ . Liberal democracy implies a low degree of political control of the media and a high degree of tolerance amongst political elites for the unwelcome and critical things which journalist in such a system will write and say.

hgk|ltlglw lgsfo ;jf]{Rrtf /xg] Joj:yfnfO{ k|hftGqsf] ?kdf JofVof ePsf] kfOG5 . ljlwsf] zf;gsf ?kdf klg k|hftGqnfO{ lnOG5 . /fHo Joj:yfdf ;a}eGbf nf]slk|o / dxTjk"0f{ :yfg k|hftGqn] lnPsf] 5 . ljleGg /fhgLlts Joj:yfsf] t'ngfdf pbf/ ePsf sf/0f clxn]sf] o'u k|hftflGqs o'u xf] . sDo'lgi6 zf;gnfO{ cfwf/ dfg]sf] l5d]sL d'n's rLg ;d]t cfkm"nfO{ k|hftflGqs/0f ub}{ ljZjd~rdf cl3 a9]sf] 5 eg] csf]{ l5d]sL ef/t ljZjs} ;a}eGbf 7"nf] nf]stflGqs /fHosf ?kdf Voflt sdfpg ;kmn ePsf] 5 . Authoritarian, communist / dominant party sf cfwf/ eGbf democracy clt g} pbf/ 5, k|];sf nflu . A liberal democracy political system demands journalistic criticism of elites as a condition of its legality.   

democracy nfO{ klg b'O{ efudf ljefhg u/]/ JofVof ug{ ;lsG5 . Ps k"0f{ k|hftflGqs / csf]{ cw{ k|hftflGqs . Pl;ofnL d'n'sx¿df yfONof08, lkmlnlkG;, b= sf]l/of, tfOjfg / hfkfg k"0f{ k|hftflGqs cEof;df /x]sf d'n's x'g . d+uf]lnof, ef/t, g]kfn, d';{/km k'j{sf] kfls:tfg, >Ln+sf, j+unfb]z cw{ k|hftflGqs d'n'ssf ?kdf JofVof ul/Psf] 5 . cfly{s, ;fdflhs, /fhgLlts / ;f:s[lts cfwf/df d'n'sx¿ ljeflht ul/Psf x'g . t/ political right plays vital role than other factor do. The social, economic, and cultural freedom depends upon the political system of the country. Economic liberalization has created the concept of globalization. To keep the business in their grip, non democratic countries are also moving in the highway of freedom. Democracy depends upon human dignity. 

Democracy carries the common views to diverse views equally. It respects and treats equally. However, in case of Nepal, we do not find such equality. The traditional culture of ruling is the main problem. Everyone needs freedom during they are in opposition, after reaching in government they starts to rule as previous did. ;fgf] / 7"nf] e]b gubf{ g} jf:tljs k|hftGqsf] cEof; ePsf] x'G5 . kb / kx'rsf] cfwf/df ;fgf JolQm 7"nf / ;j} u'0fn] /fd|f dfG5] ;fgf eO/x]sf] cj:yf 5 . kIf / ljkIf ;dfg ?kdf k|hftGqdf x's{g ;Sg'k5{ . /fhgLlts b[li6sf]0fn] x]g]{ xf] eg] g]kfnsf] /fhgLlts cl:y/tfsf] sf/0f oxL km/skgn] pAhfPsf] xf] . sdhf]/dfly ePsf] b'Jo{jxf/ jf sdhf]/sf] s'/f g;'Gg] k|j[ltn] /fhgLlts j[Qdf o;k|sf/sf] kl/0ffd xft kl//x]sf] 5 .  

k|hftGqsf] csf]{ dxTk"0f{ s'/f eg]sf] ;dfg ;xeflutf klg xf] . s'g} klg gful/s /fhgLltdf nfUg ;S5 . hgdt cfk\mgf] kIfdf kfg{;S5 / ;d:ofsf] cfkm} ;dfwfg klg ug{;S5 . u}//fhgLlts If]qaf6 klg ;xeflutf k'Ug;S5 . cfkm"n] r'g]sf] k|ltlglw dfkm{t ;d:of ;dfwfg u/fpg' p;sf] clwsf/ xf] . Not only in politics, everywhere can anyone participate equally and fairly. Moreover, they must be responsible for state.

/f0ffsfnnfO{ ;dfKt u/]sf /fhgLlts bnsf g]tfn] To;kl5sf] cjlwdf Pp6} p2]Zo agfP /f0ffs} ;fgdf x's{g] .  To;kl5 cfPsf] k~rfot Joj:yfn] klg x's'dL zf;gnfO{ g} c+ufNof] . x's'dL z}nLn] ljsf; ePsf] k~rfot @)$^ ;fndf 9Nof] . k|hftGqsf] nflu n8]sf eGg] g]tfx¿ klg cfk\mgf] lg0f{odfq ;xL xf] eGb} pxL /f0ffsfnsf] / k~rfotL Joj:yfsf] x's'dL z}nLdf cl3 a9] . k|hftGqdf ;a}sf] ljrf/sf] dxTj x'G5 . t/, of] cjlwdf ag]sf ;/sf/ / tLgsf g]tfn] ljrf/sf] sb/ u/]gg\, cfk\mg} x's'dL kf/f b]vfP . of] qmd al9/x\of] . x's'dL z}nLsf] lj/f]w ub}{ ;z:q ljb|f]xdf plqPsf] g]skf dfcf]jfbL klg x's'dL z}nLdf lx8]sf] 5 . cfk\mgf] ljrf/ lj?4 lx+;fTds sfjf{xL ug'{ ljrf/dflysf] lx+;f ug'{ xf] . cyf{t g]kfnsf] /fhgLlt x's'dL dfq x'g'n] ;~rf/sf] hlt Joj;flos ljsf; x'g'kYof]{ ;s]g .

In this practice, media should not expose out everything in the name of sensational. /fi6« k|ltsf] pQ/bfloTj ;~rf/sf dfWodn] b]vfpg} k5{ . Media should play the role of watch dog, not the role of lapdog from It is bounded of social politics values, typography, economy, social values, history etc. t/ ofb ug'{kg]{ s'/f eg]sf] ;dfhsf] /]vb]v xf] . ;dfhnfO{ ;xL ?kdf ;+rng ug{ ;~rf/ dfWodsf] 7"nf] e"ldsf /xG5 .

;}4flGts kIfnfO{ cfwf/ dfGg] xf] eg], the democratic role of media is bound up with a debate about how the media should be organized. Classical liberal argues the primary democratic role of the media is to act as a public watchdog overseeing the state. sltko cj:yf watchdog media sf] clwgfosjfb l;4fGt eg]/ JofVof klg ePsf 5g\ . Media sf] sfo{ bfo/f eg]/ kx/]bf/ tf]lsPsf]n] :jtGqtfdfly clwkTo eGg] cf/f]k klg nfu]sf] 5 . ;dfhsf] kx/]bf/sf] ?kdf media nfO{ lng] qmddf media cfkm} zf;s klg x'g;Sg] tkm{ cf/f]k nufpg]x¿ klZrdf d'n'sdf sd 5}gg\ . cfw'lgs k|hftGqsf] JofVof ug]{ qmddf Communication specialist Brain Mc Nair says, "Critical and pluralistic journalism is viewed as a safeguard against the possibility of a return to authoritarian rule and as a watchdog over the abuse of political power by those to whom it is entrusted by the people in election." Wathdog over the abuse of political power by those to whom it is entrusted by the people in election.

;}4flGts cfwf/df klg km]/jbn eO/xG5 . kl5Nnf k':tfn] watchdog nfO{ ;/sf/L egfO{ / jf:tljstfsf cfwf/df JofVof u/]sf 5g\ . critical surveillance of government is clearly an important aspect of the democratic function of the media. pgLx¿n] Nixon nfO{ cd]l/sL /fi6«klt x'“bf ePsf] Watergate e08fkmf]/, leotgfd o'4 cfbLnfO{ pbfx/0fsf ?kdf lnPsf 5g\, media as a watchdog eg]/ . cfly{s pbf/Ls/0fsf sf/0f media df nufgL ug{ cToflws conglomerate x? a9]sf 5g\ . o;sf/0f media nfO{ watchdog sf ?kdf JofVof ug]{ xf] eg] To;sf] kl/efiff a9fpg'kg]{ /fo sltko ;+rf/ljb\x¿n] lbPsf 5g\ . One school of researchers argues that media conglomerates are, in effect, independent power centres that use their political leverage to pursue corporate gain.

lghL If]qsf dfWoddfq xf]Ogg\ ;/sf/L If]qsf dfWod klg /fHon] ug]{ lgoGq0fsf sf/0f watchdog aGg ;Sb}gg\ . hgtfsf] ;xof]u kfPklg ljleGg gLltut Jojwfg / /fhgLlts x:tIf]kn] klg dfWod watchdog aGg ;ls/x]sf] x'b}g . ;/sf/af6 ;DkfbsLodf x'g] x]/km]/ / ;/sf/sf] bL3{sfnLg of]hgfdf c;/ kfg]{ eP media dfly control x'G5 . o;af6 public broadcasting n] klg ;xL ?kdf sfd ug{ ;Sb}g . o; cGt{ut /fHo :jfoQ eP dfWod :jfoQ x'G5 . To;}n] Tof] dfWod /fHosf] kIf lng'eGbf 6f9f ghfg;S5 .

k|hftGq / ;~rf/sf] cWoogdf csf]{ kIf xf] o;sf consumer . public watchdog sf] cfb{z eg]sf] ;/sf/n] u/]sf] unt s'/fsf] e08fkmf]/ ug'{ . o;n] media nf]slk|odfq xf]Og public sf] cf:yfsf] s]Gb| ;d]t aG5 . o:t} s]nfpg] xf] eg] information lbg] qmddf media sf] e"ldsf s] 5 Tof] dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . :jtGq k|];n] dfq public sf] :jfoQtfsf] /Iff, utnsf] e08fkmf]/ ug{ ;S5 . To:t} jf:tljs watchdog sf] e"ldsf v]Ng professional responsibility sf] cfjZostf k5{ .

Alternative perspective of media and democracy cGt{ut xfdLn] ljleGg ljifox¿ p7fPsf] kfp5f}+ . o; cGt{ut pluralism, outline of the working model, public service solution, Social market k5{g . jf:tjdf liberal sf] cy{ 7Dofpg lgSs} sl7g sfd xf] lsgsL Pp6f :yfgsf] :jtGqtfsf] JofVof / csf]{ :yfgsf] :jtGqtfsf] JofVofaLr 7"nf] cGt/ x'G5 . o;s} cfwf/df k|hftflGqs cEof; / ;~rf/ :jtGqtfsf klg ck\mg} ;Ldf / jfWotf x'G5g\ .

2. Pluralism

Pluralism on media in these days is very essential. In world's context, the pluralism in radio and television is very new. Most of the radio and television are controlled by the state. In India, even today, radios have not gained fully pluralism. Televisions in India get this opportunity after they started to broadcast from overseas targeting India. ;fob ljb]zaf6 6]lnlehgsf] k|;f/0f gyfn]sf] eP ef/tdf 6]lnlehgsf] af9L rNg] lyPg . clxn] ef/tdf 6]lnlehgsf] ;+Vof cToflws ePklg Tof] ef/tsf] nflu xfgLsf/s 5}g eGg] k|dfl0ft ePsf] 5 / jlif{gf}+ ;dfrf/nfO{dfq s]lGb|t u/]/ 6]lnlehg :6]zg v'ln/x]sf 5g\ . tLgn] ;/sf/ jf k|ltkIf b'a}sf] ;dfg cfnf]rgf u/]sf] b]lvG5 .

For the purpose of this Recommendation, the notion of "media pluralism" should be understood as diversity of media supply, reflected, for example, in the existence of a plurality of independent and autonomous media (generally called structural pluralism) as well as a diversity of media types and contents (views and opinions) made available to the public. Therefore, both the structural/quantitative and qualitative aspects are central to the notion of media pluralism. It should be stressed that pluralism is about diversity in the media that is made available to the public, which does not always coincide with what is actually consumed. (Adopted by the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers on 19 January 1999 at the 656th meeting of the Ministers' Deputies)

The concept of pluralism is comprised of two features. Political pluralism, which is about the need, in the interests of democracy, for a wide range of political opinions and viewpoints to be represented in the media. Democracy would be threatened if any single voice within the media, with the power to propagate a single political viewpoint, were to become too dominant. Cultural pluralism, which is about the need for a variety of cultures, as reflects the diversity within society, to find expression in the media.

There are many media and their many approaches in pluralism. 'More the merrier' is important in democratic countries. More of the same is not good for society. We find media competitions only in pluralism. That mean, more information in creative style; easy for society to find out what is right or not. Even in Nepalese context, after lunching of private television channels, the government operated Nepal Television started to change it's programs; because of competition. All television tries to do better. That's why more diversity came in television news. TV channels have started separate news on sports and business and public opinion. After lunching private channels, public participation has grown high in media.

Democratic function of the media system is to act an agency of representation. It should be organized in a way that enables diverse social groups and organizations to express alternative view points. ljljwtfsf] s'/f ubf{ ;~rf/n] lbg] / ;j{;fwf/0fn] lng] ljifoj:t'df ePsf] ljljwtfnfO{ Pp6} l;Ssfsf b'O{ kf6fsf ?kdf JofVof u/]sf] kfOG5 . k|hftGqsf] sfo{ dWo] ljkIfLsf] s'/f ;'Gg] / To;sf] dgg ug]{ klg xf] . s'g} klg ljifon] p7fPsf] åGå ;dfwfgdf o;n] dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf v]N5 . o;sf/0f ax'njfbsf] l;4fGt ;~rf/sf nflu clt g} dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 .

o'/f]k]nL sfplG;nsf] a}+7sn] ;~rf/ dfWoddf ax'njfb x'g'kg]{df hf]8 lbb}{ ;g\ !((( b]lv cg'udg ;d]t ug{ yfn]sf] 5 . Go"gtd ljljwtfsf] kfng o'/f]k]nL d'n'sx¿ kfng u/]/ jx'njfbnfO{ sfod /fVg ;a} ;b:o /fi6«nfO{ lgb]{zg ;d]t lbOPsf] 5 .

Ownership and editorial responsibility

The question of media owners and how they can influence the editorial content of their outlets has a bearing on media pluralism. It is generally considered that pluralism is better safeguarded when ownership and editorial content are kept separate. This being said, in many countries media owners are entitled to determine the political/editorial line of their media and any restrictions preventing them from being involved in the day-to-day operation of their company would be very difficult to accept. The relationship between the editor and the owner is, to some extent, constitutionally regulated in some countries.

It is nevertheless important to mention in this explanatory report, as examples for member States who consider regulatory intervention in this area necessary, some of the possible measures, which can be used to prevent proprietors from influencing the editorial content of the media products that they own. One possibility is the signing of "editorial agreements" between owners and editors to secure the independence of the latter to take the lead on all editorial decisions free of interference from the proprietors. The terms of such agreements vary and most are constituted on an informal or voluntary basis. There are, however, examples of editorial agreements defined by law or statute.

The issue of who has a say in the dismissal and replacement of editors or other key personnel is also of importance. If an owner has the power to dismiss or select new appointees, he can use this to reshape the editorial policy without ever needing to interfere directly with the content. Journalists can use such power to establish a culture of obedience and self-restraint. One option to counterbalance this can be to foresee the right of the editorial staff to participate in and veto dismissals and appointments of key new personnel. Similarly, another measure, which can be combined with editorial agreements, is foreseeing the right to a comprehensive redundancy package for editorial staff who wishes to resign following a change of ownership in a media undertaking. This is the so-called "conscience clause," which is backed by law in several countries.

Some definitions of journalism

"In reality, I never did professional journalism. I did mission journalism. Mission journalism means a component of journalism. I could not remain aloof from politics."

D.R. Lamichhane

Jff:tjdf, d}n] slxn] klg Joj;flos kqsfl/tf ul/g“ . d}n] ld;g kqsfl/tf dfq} u/] . ld;g kqsfl/tf eg]sf] kqsfl/tfsf] Ps efu xf], d /fhgLltsf] xf“ufaf6 slxn] 6fl9g rfx“b}g .

8Lcf/ nfld5fg], hgefjgf ;fKtflxs

Feb 3, 2003. Jana Bhabana weekly

Journalism in Nepal has been post, politics, and personality centre. A instated of forcing policy matters. 

Daman Nath Dhungana

The Rising Nepal-1997

If there is no restriction in journalism, that is civilize.

Pradip Nepal

Speak person UML.

Journalism is not a business, it is a social responsibility.

Madav Kumar Nepal

General Secretary UML.

May 2003. Samachar patra.

Right to information is the soul of democracy.

Keshab Prashad Upadhaya

Chief justices, high court.

It is very difficult to imagine the life without information and media

Prachanda

President- Maoists

13 may, 2004, Khabar Kagaja weekly.

A newspaper is not a dustbin of film gossip and other trivia. It most has news. It most has information.

Kuldeep Nayar

Journalism is our public diary, our daily book and as such, it forms our collective memory. – Media study Journal, vol. 13, no. 2, 1999, New York.

Journalism is not a profession you do to make money. It is a profession you feel proud about. Pen stands for the abilities of journalist and the ideas that generate out of these pens help journalists win recognition and prestige. – The Rising Nepal, 1999, July 15.

If there is not clear line between professionalism and political interest, the principles of journalism will shock. Press has its own responsibility, rule, and right.

Kamal Thapa,

Minister for information and communication, 6 may 2004

From these definitions, we find, Nepalese political leaders know the norms and values of journalism as well as Justices. But in reality article 16 of constitution is passive even today. Article 16 has provided right to information for every citizens of the country. !# jif{sf] cjlwdf ( k6s ;/sf/ km]l/bf klg ;"rgfsf] xssf] nflu sfg"gL jftj/0f gjGg'sf] sf/0f s] xf] < jf:tjdf x/]s k|ltkIfn] ;"rgfsf] xssf] nflu ax; u/]sf] kfOG5 t/ pgLx? g} ;Qfdf k'u]kl5 To;nfO{ sfg"gL ?k lbg 8/fPsf] b]lvG5 . o;af6 a'e\mg'kg]{ s'/f s] xf] eg], …jf:tjdf k|hftflGqs ;/sf/ ePklg k|];nfO{ cfk\mgf] lgoGq0f aflx/ /fVg rfxb}g . s]xL cj/f]w v8f u/]/ ePklg k"0f{ :jtGqtfsf] kIfdf s'g} klg /fhgLlts bn /xb}gg\ .Ú

There should not be formality in presenting news. In Nepal, cable television provides international channels but not Nepalese, because of competition. t/ xfn} ;/sf/n] ;Dk"0f{ g]kfnL Rofgnx¿nfO{ clgjfo{ ?kdf s]j'nx¿n] k|;f/0f ug'{kg]{ lg0f{o NofPsf] 5 .  

Media in society: In Nepalese context

You need to be hungry for news. The journalists should never sit back on a shift and the professional and journalist is never off duty. – Tim Crook (international radio journalism.)

Media and Technology

We do not find the trend of sharing new technologies in communication. Not all Nepalese have the access of technologies. Whither they have capacity to adopt those technologies but there is no infrastructure. How many people have electricity? According to the government data only 20 percent, people have. Other alternative sources and hydropower of Nepal provide electricity to 40% of the total population. And how effective can be the television journalism as well as the internet? On the other hand, the purchasing capacity of Nepalese is very low. Per capital income is lower than $ 270. Whither there is 15000 kilometer long road in all Nepal, many people, even today, have not seen vehicles. There are 18 private airline companies who operate average 300 flights per day. Most of their targeted areas are main cities of the country. Very few of them operate to far rural areas.

The technologies have very effective impact in cities. The development of nation being centralized, the people of main cities have standered lifestyle. They have mobile, digital camera, internet, and television channels and so on. As well, most of the literate people live in those cities. As a result, most of media focus them.

In the context of world, technologies are being cheaper and cheaper. The printing quality is being higher. As well, advertising competitions, investment in media, social feedback and such things are being increased.

But most of them focuses in cities. We have an example – The volume of economic activity in Kathmandu is about 55% of total investment. Being that the 60% of total advertising activities is only in Kathmandu.

The development process and the educated are increasing. It will create big opportunities.

If we watch local & regional development of media, we most watch India. Being British colony Indian got modern education and modern media. Railway network send media to huge mass. British colony was better then the Rana dominance of Nepal in the context of media and education. Politically both Nepal and India had same system but different values. From this, we can say media may have different values whither there is same system.

Asian values of journalism are different from western. It dependent upon the political stability, cultural values, economic conditions and so on. The role of proximity in social values is very high.       

Journalism and public trust

The market force guides news media. The impact of the market force, we find gradually public trust in media is being less. It happens not only in third counties, western media are also afraid to print or broadcast about big houses. To gain public trust market forces must be limit or less or in the grip of media.  It must be balance and that force should not kill principles of journalism.

We know, the fundamental role of the press is to inform and empower citizens. To empower, the participation of public is most important. There is big conflict of markets. That is why media can be used for negative perspective. As well, political conflict is another reason to fail public trust. If political leader captures media, more participation goes on political issues, which can be irritated for public.

First, we should know who audiences are. Are they things? No. But, in the contest of advertising, people are being an object. Media should not take public as commodity. Neglect of advertisers can be harmful for news media. t/ To:tf s'/f jlx:sf/ ug{ g;Sg' media sf] sdhf]/L g} xf] . g]kfnL media sf] ;j{;fwf/0fk|lt slt cf:yf 5 s'g} cWoog ePsf 5}gg\ . audience nfO{ hj/h:tL ;fdfu|L lbg]qmddf g} g]kfnL ;+rf/hut nfluk/]sf] 5 . Public trust lhTg media research jf audience research x'g'kg]{ b]lvG5 .

The rating system is not implying in Nepal even today. Therefore, the advertising system depended on estimate. cGo b]zdf 6]lnlehgsf s'g sfo{qmdsf] slt 6]lnlehg ;]6af6 k|zf/0f eof] eGg] b]vfpg] setup box sf] Joj:yf ul/Psf] kfOG5 . g]kfnsf] ;Gb{edf of] cem} gof“ g} ;'lgG5 .

Investment in media

;~rf/ zlQm ePsf sf/0f nufgL x'G5 . Tof] zlQmsf sf/0f cfly{s b'/fj:yf ePklg h]gt]g ;~rf/sf dfWod afRg] u/]sf] b]lvG5, g]kfnL ;Gb{edf . According to Jeremy Tunstall, there are four models of investment in press.

Press lord:- It is being defined as the old style press lord. In Britain, Lord Northcliffe was the first person to be a press lord. In this model investor invest money in various media but do not care profit or loss. Investor likes to be a media lord and do not have media concentration. It lived in into the 1960s. Jofkfl/s lx;fjn] gfkmf gkfP klg k|]; n8{n] political policy a9fpg media campaign ug{ s]xL xb;Dd ;kmn ePsf] b]lvG5 .

1.     Crown prince: - It tries to fulfill the family trend. h;/L ePklg dfWod rnfpg] sfd u5{ t/ j[l4tkm{ rf;f] lbPsf] b]lvGg . t/, o;df klg ;'wfl/Psf] cj:yf xfdL;fd' 5 . This model belongs to investors' generation. The investment goes one generation to another. This model has not in Nepal now. It has both good and bad effect. Some one invest to give continue of media or to make profit. The investment in Times of India after 1990 can be taken as this model.

Media mogul:- ;g\ !(^) sf] bzs kl5 j]nfotL k|];df o;k|sf/sf] nufgL zlQmzfnL nufgLsf] ?kdf b]vf k5{ . o;df dfWod xft kfg'{ / cfkm} o;sf] j[l4df nfUg] Joj;flos k|j[lt b]vf k5{ . o; k|sf/sf] nufgLstf{ hf]lvddf cfkm} ;xefuL /xG5 eg] cfk\mgf] ;f]r x'G5 h'g /fhfgLlt;+u k|ToIF ;xefuL x'g;S5 .  It is very near to press lord but it is toward profit. It likes to invest money in various media. This investor has big concentration in media too. William Randolph Hearst ljZjs} klxnf] media mogul x'g\ . oL cd]l/sL lyP .

2.     Chief executive:- In fact, the chief executive is not a major owner, but dominated by economic motivation. He has to think profit, share, and dividends. Chief executive is one who is media share holder or some other power appoints him. ;g\ !(() sf] bzsdf cfOk'Ubf o;k|sf/sf] nufgLdf lj1fkg, n]vf, ;s'{n];g / ;DkfbsLo k[i7e"ld ePsf JolQm ;d]t ;dfj]z ePsf] b]lvG5 . We can define investment in different ways. oL cGt{ut o;/L JofVof ug{ ;lsG5 .

*Globalization:

This terminology is form Business. Communication is the means of globalization. ;+rf/sf] ljZjJofkLs/0fdf cfPsf] globaloization n] ;a}nfO{ k|efljt kf/]sf] kfOG5 . cGt/fli6«o :t/df x'g] nufgLn] :yfgLo nufgLdf ;~rflnt ldl8of k|efljt dfq x'g] xf]Og ;+:s[ltdf g} c;/ kg]{ u5{ . /fli6«o ;Ldf/]vfn] lgoGq0f ug{ g;Sg] x'gfn] ljZjAofkLs/0fsf] gsf/fTds c;/ klg kg{ ;S5 . cem} klg g]kfnL ldl8ofdf dfq e/ gk/L w]/} audience n] BBC sf] g]kfnL ;]jf ;'g]/dfq cfk\mgf] wf/0ff agfpg] u/]sf] kfOG5 . Global media have better quality and capacity. That is why it is difficult to compit them. Small investment can not fight with the cope of global media.

Global media seems one way communication because it has big market. t];|f] d'n's;“u hf]l8Psf va/n] klZrdfnfO{ k|efj kf5{ eg] dfq t];|f] d'n'sn] global media df :yfg kfpg;S5 Tof] klg negative ?kdf . a|'gfO{df ePsf /fd|f s'/f global news ePsf] kfOGg t/ ;'Ntfgsf s'/f cfO/xG5 . cd]l/sfn] hlt;'s} :jtGqtf eg]/ s/fPklg ;fpbL c/jsf] b/jf/Lof va/ slxNo} lbb}g lsgsL Tof] va/ cfPdf Jofkfl/s sf/f]jf/df g} c;/ k5{ . dlxnf :jtGqtfsf] hlt;'s} JofVof u/]klg g t Toxf cd]l/sfn] dlxnf /fhb't g} lgo'Qm u5{ . O/fsdf ;4fd ;dfltg' cl3 / ;dfltPkl5 pgLdfly ePsf] ;+jf]wg lgSs} km/s ?kdf media n] lbP . jf:tjdf eGg] xf] eg] globalization df third world are being voiceless . g]kfndf tL; hgf dbf{ klg global news gx'g] cj:yf cfPsf] 5 eg] Oh/fondf Pshgf 3fOt] ePklg ;dfrf/ algxfN5 . Globalisation sf] xfn;Ddsf] kl/0ffd x]bf{ ;du| /fli6«o media df x'g] propoganda / gfkmfd'lv ;dfrf/ n] g} :yfg cf]u6]sf] 5 . media as a global watchdog x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . ldl8of /fi6«sf] kx/]bf/ ePklg ljZjsf] kx/]bf/ x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . o;df ldl8ofsf] cf–cfkm\g} :jfy{n] e"ldsf v]n]sf] x'G5 .

Media globalisation nfO{ Transnational, International and multinational sf ?kdf efu nufP/ x]g{ ;lsG5 . Globalization means process of social change that has effect on humanity as a whole. In the communication sector, globalisation at present time means that an oligopoly of offerers is dominationgthe scene. clxn] ljZjsf rf/–kf“r congomarate n] ;a} ;~rf/sf dfWodnfO{ cfkm\gf] oligopoly cg';f/ rnfO/x]sf 5g\ . o;/L media ownership Psf]xf]/f] eP check and balance x'“b}g .

* Cross ownership

media afx]s cGo Joj;fo klg ;~rfng ug]{ kl/kf6L g} cross ownership xf] . o; cGt{ut g]kfndf klg ;+rf/sf dfWod b]vfk/]sf 5g\ . h:t} /fhwfgL b}lgssf] csf]{ business sf ?kdf j}b]lzs /f]huf/ 5 eg] g]kfn ;dfrf/kqsf] jg:ktL Wo' sf] business 5 . o;k|sf/sf] business If]qn] media df nufgL ugf{;fy Toxf“ clash of interest x'g;S5 . media free ?kdf /xg ;S5 ls ;Sb]g eGg] s'/f oxf dxTjk"0f{ ljifo x'gk;U5 . business sf] interest media af6 k'/f u/fpg media df nufgL ePsf] klg x'g;S5 . ;/sf/L media nfO{ klg o;} cGt{ut JofVof ug]{ xf] eg] tL media /fd|f] gx'g'df /fHosf] jf /fhgLlts bnsf] :jfy{ hf]l8Psf] x'G5  . ;/sf/L lj1fkg cflbsf sf/0f klg k|ToIf c;/ k/]sf] x'g;S5 .

* Horizontal ownership & Vertical ownership

;dfgfGt/ ?kdf ljleGg media x?df nufgL x'G5 eg] Tof] horizontal ownership xf] . Pp6} organisation af6 radio, TV, paper cflb ;~rfng x'G5 eg] Tof] horizontal ownership xf] . o;df freedom x'g;S5 t/ ;a} media capture x'“bf gsf/fTds kl/0ffd klg lbg;S5 . o:tf organization n] gLlt lgdf{0f txdf ;d]t c;/ kfg{ ;S5 . cem /fli6«o cl:dtfsf] ljifodf vt/gfs dflgG5 o:tf nufgL . cGo d'n'sdf Pp6} organisation n] 5fkf / ljB'tLo dfWod ;+rfng ug{ gkfOg] Joj:yf ePklg g]kfndf eg] s'g} sfg"gL /f]stf]s 5}g . o:tf] cj:yfdf Media concentration sf] ;Defjgf a9L /xG5 . organization g} ;a}eGbf zlQmzfnL gagf]; elgG5, h;n] zlQm b'?kof]u ug{ ;S5 .

Pp6} media industry leqs} sub industries df x'g] nufgLnfO{ vertical ownership elgG5 . h:t} klqsf k|sfzg ug]{ organization n] sfuh / d;Lsf] pBf]udf nufgL u5{ eg] Tof] vertical ownership xf] . To:t} cfk\mgf] afx]ssf media distribution klg ug]{ x'g;S5 . 6]lnlehg Rofgn ;+rfng ug]{n] s]a'n l6eLdf ug]{ nufgLnfO{ o;}cGt{ut JofVof ug{ ;lsG5 . To:t} media housee n] advertising agency df ug]{ nufgL klg o;} cGt{ut /xG5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf ad agency n] cfk\mgf] media nfO{ g} a9L dxTj lbg;S5 . o;}sf/0f o;sf] lj/f]w klg x'g] u/]sf] 5 .

* Conglomerate or Chain ownership

o;}u/L nufgLnfO{ ;/sf/L, lghL, ;fj{hlgs / JolQmut cfwf/df klg juL{s/0f ePsf] kfOG5 .

Partisan Press:

It can be described as the follower. s'g} klg ;+:yf, JolQm jf kIf;ksf] nflu kqsfl/tf x'G5 eg] Tof] partisan press xf] . ljz]ifu/L /fhgLlts bn, Jofkfl/s k|lti7fg jf s'g} klg ;fdflhs ;+:yfsf] kIfdf jsfnt ug{ lg:sg] media nfO{ partisan press sf ?kdf JofVof x'g] u/]sf] 5 . g]kfndf /fhgLlts bn;“u ;DjGw /fVb} ;Grfngdf cfPsf kqklqsfnfO{ o; ju{df /fVg ;lsG5 .

s'g} klg Ps kIfsf] nflu ;Grfng x'g] media nfO{ partisan press sf] ?kdf lng ;S5f}+ . Within media studies, much research has focused upon the political partisanship of the press and TV companies, that is, upon the degree to which they may support one or other political party or faction, and colour their political coverage accordingly. t/ media n] b'O{j6} party or faction sf] wf/0ffnfO{ :yfg lbG5 eg] Tof] Bipartisan x'G5 . ljZj kqsfl/tfsf] Oltxf;df !( cf}+ ztfJbLsf] cGTolt/ partisan press sf] Jofkstf lyof] eg] cem} klg o;n] :yfg kfO/x]s} 5 .

/fhgLltn] g} press nfO{ w]/} k|efj kfl//x]sf] x'G5 . ToxL /fhgLlts bn jf To;sf g]tfdf s]Gb|Lt eO{ u'gufg ug'{ partisan press sf] wd{ xf] . c?nfO{ v/fa b]vfpg media sf] b'?kof]u x'g' partisan sf] v/fa kIf xf] . g]kfnsf] ;Gb{edf x]g]{ xf] eg] )$^ cl3sf ;a} dfWod partisan press lyP eg] clxn] ;+rfngdf /x]sf clwsf+z ;fKtflxs o:t} 9+uaf6 rln/x]sf 5g\ . /fhgLlts bn / Tof] bnsf] klg ljz]if JolQmsf] :jfy{ k'/f ug{ lg:sg] media n] k|hftflGqs k|];sf] cjwf/0ff dfGg ;Sb}g . t/, clwstd ;+Vofdf ;a} kIfaf6 press sf] :yfkgf x'g] xf] eg] /fd|f] x'G5 . lsgsL 5fg]/ media u|x0f ug{ kfpg] audience sf] clwsf/ ;+/If0f x'G5 . g]kfndf cgf}7f] s] 5 eg] k|]; sfplG;nn] s >]0fLdf /fv]sf w]/} klqsf klg partition press g} 5g\ . o;df /fhgLlts bn jf g]tfn] ;xL eg]df unt klg ;xL / unt eg]df ;xL klg unt g} ePsf] lgZsif{ media n] lgsfN5 . clg /fhgLlts bn km'6\of] eg] media klg b'O{ efu nfUg] u/]sf] kfOG5 . h:t} g]skf Pdfn] ljefhg x'bf b]lvPsf] kl/0ffd . klZrdf d'n'sdf clxn] partisan press vf;} kfOGg eg] ef/tdf ;d]t o;k|sf/sf] press 5}g .

cfly{s sf/f]jf/nfO{ cfwf/ dfGg] xf] eg] Jofkfl/s k|lti7fgsf] kIfdf jsfnt ug]{ media klg 5g\ . cfk\mgf] Jofkfl/s k|lti7fgsf] kIf / k|ltåGbLsf] lj?4 vlgg' o:tf] media n] cfk\mgf] wd{ dfg]sf] x'G5 . Partisan sf] scale ug]{ cfwf/ kfOGg . mission journalism o; cGt{ut g} /xG5 eGg ;lsG5 .

What's the    difference between Partism and mission journalism ?

Media practices

Professionaliszation, diversification, and specialization are essential elements for an effective communication process in its varied aspects.

@)$^ ;fnsf] kl/jt{g kl5 g]kfnL ;+rf/df s]xL ;'wf/sf k|of; eP . k|hftGqsf] k'g{:yfkgfkl5 ePsf ljsf;x? dWo] ;+rf/nfO{ cu|:yfgdf lnOG5 . g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwfg @)$& n] k|Tofe't u/]sf] k|]; :jtGqtfnfO{ pTs[i6 dflgG5 . ;+ljwfgk|bQ clwsf/ Jojxf/df nfu" x'“b}g eg] Tof] cy{xLg g} x'G5 . ;+ljwfgsf] wf/f !^ n] Joj:yf u/]sf] ;"rgfsf] xs ;+ljwfg n]lvPsf] !$ jif{;Dd klg j]jf:tfdf k/]sf] 5 . g]kfn kqsf/ dxf;+3sf] ;lqmotfdf @)%& ;fndf tof/ ePsf] ;"rgfsf] xs ;DjGwL ljw]ossf] d:of}bf cem};Dd kfl/t ePsf] 5}g .

x/]s /fhgLlts bn kIfdf b]lvg] ;"rgfsf] xs ;DjGwL ljw]osdfq xf]Og, ;"rgf lbg eg]/ dGqfnodf v6fOPsf k|jQmnfO{ ;d]t yfxf 5}g p;sf] sfo{bfo/f . In reality, bureaucrats have developed a habit of preferring to keep silent. t/ g]kfnsf] ;+ljwfg k|];sf] nflu gd"gf dflgG5 . Flow of information from different channels of communication including the news media can help promote a culture of responsibility, accountability, and credibility at decision making levels. ;"rgf o;}sf/0f klg kf/bzL{ x'g' cfjZos dflgG5 .

@)%$ ;fndf lghL If]qaf6 klxnf]k6s /]l8of] k|f/De eof] . To;a]nfb]lv g} /]l8of]df ;dfrf/ lbg gkfOg] Joj:yf lyof] . kmnZj?k /]l8of]x¿n] ;dfrf/ gfd g/fvL va/ lbg k|f/De u/] . Pluralism of ideas and free public debate on issues are a way of life in a functioning democracy. t/ Tof] pluralism electronic media df w]/}kl5;Dd klg nfu" x'g ;s]g . cem} short wave and medium wave df /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] clwsf/ s;}nfO{ lbOPsf] 5}g . ef}uf]lns cfwf/ x]g]{ xf] eg] /]l8of] dfq cfd ;~rf/sf] dfWod x'g;S5 . 6]lnlehg tkm{ tLgj6f 6]lnlehg satellite af6 k|If]k0f ePsf 5g\ . tL dWo] b'O{ g]kfnaf6 / Ps ef/taf6 . sf7df8f}+ pkTosfleq c? tLg 6]lnlehg ;+rfngdf 5g\ . #) eGbf a9L PkmPd k|;f/0fdf 5g\ eg] @) eGbfa9L k|;f/0fsf] tof/Ldf 5g\ .

;x/ s]Gb|Lt media sf] afx'Notf 5 . hnljB't @) k|ltzt hgtfdf k'u]sf] 5 . %) k|ltzt hgtf lzIffaf6 aflx/ 5g\ . !% xhf/ lsnf]ld6/ ;8s / b}lgs # ;o xjfO{ p8fg 5 . c;'/Iffsf sf/0f  media cem} partisanship df ;+rflnt 5g\ . ;x/df OG6/g]6 k|of]ustf{ a9]sf 5g\ . dfcf]jfbL ultljlwdf j[l4 ePkl5 u|fdL0f e]u ;+rf/ljlxg eO;s]sf 5g\ .

dfcf]jfbL ultljlwdf ltj|tf cfPkl5 u|fld0f If]q ;+rf/af6 cnUuLPsf] 5 . ;Ldflxg ljZj sf] gf/f nufPklg ;b/d'sfd / ufpaLrdfq xf]Og ;b/d'sfd / /fhwfgLaLr klg ;Dks{ ug{ ;lhnf] 5}g . of] cjlwdf dfcf]jfbLn] OG6/g]6 / mobile radio sf] k|of]u u/]sf] kfOG5 . OG6/g]6 ;DjGwL sfg"g gePsf] cj:yfdf g} ;/sf/n] dfcf]jfbLsf] www.cpnm.org dfly lgoGq0f u¥of] . clxn] klg Wlink / Mercantile af6 internet service lng] u|fxsdf dfcf]jfbLsf] web page v'Nb}g .

dfcf]jfbLs} lx+;fTds ultljlwsf sf/0f @)%* ;fndf nfu" ePsf] ;+s6sfndf g]kfnL k|];n] 7"nf] IftL j]xf]{g k¥of] . ;+s6sfnsf] cjlwdf ;+ljwfgn] lbPsf clwsf/ s'lG7t eP . kqsf/ lu/k\mtf/ x'g' ;fdfGo em} eof] . dfcf]jfbL ultljlw a9\g yfn]kl5 kqsf/sf] ;'/Iff 7"nf] ;d:ofsf] ljifo ePsf] 5 . ;'/IffsdL{ / dfcf]jfbL b'a} kIfn] media nfO{ psychological warfare sf ?kdf lnO/x]sf 5g\ . of] /fhgLltdf press as a weapon g} b]lvof] . w]/} kl5dfq cfP/ kqsf/x¿n] cfkm" k|of]u ePsf] d"Nof+sg ug{ yfn]sf] kfOG5 . o; cy{df eGg] xf] eg] partisan press in Nepal is a continuation with the practices evolved encouraged during the now defunct partyless panchayat years. *) k|ltzt hgtf u|fdL0f e]udf g} 5g\ . dfcf]jfbL ultljlwkl5 lj:yflkt x'g] qmd a9]sf] 5 .

News Construction M ;dfrf/ / ljrf/df cGt/ 5 eg] ;dfrf/df b]lvg' x'b}g . t/, k|i6} b]lvG5 . g]kfn 6]lnlehgn] ;dfrf/ lbPsf] xf] ls ;/sf/L ljrf/ 7Dofpg xDd] k5{ . /]l8of] ;u/dfyf cfPkl5 ;dfrf/df bites lbg] rng cfof] . o;cl3 public opinion eg]sf] s'g r/fsf] gfp eg]h:t} lyof] . PkmPddf ;dfrf/d'ns ;fdfu|Lsf] k|;f/0f k|f/De ePkl5 cvaf/sf ;dfrf/ 5f]6f aGg yfn]sf 5g\ . 7"nf cvaf/n] beat reporting df dxTj lbPsf 5g\ . /fhgLlts ;dfrf/df eg] kf6L{ glhssf] jf sfo{stf{ g} kqsf/ ag]sf] kfOG5 . partisan press sf] lg/Gt/tf content sf] cfwf/df eGg] xf] eg] 7"nf cvaf/n] klg lbPsf] kfOG5 .  lghL If]qsf media sf sf/0f news df public participation a9]sf] 5 . /fli6«o ;dfrf/ ;ldltsf] a'n]l6g x]g]{ xf] eg] cem} klg quote kfOGg . News source sf] ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 . Ps lsl;dsf] systematic journalism sf] k|f/De ePsf] eGg ;lsG5 . lhNnfaf6 cfpg] ;dfrf/sf] ;+Vofdf ;'wf/ ePsf] 5 . u'0f:t/ eg] cem} /fd|f] 5}g .

ljifout ?kdf k[i7x? ylkPsf 5g\ . oL ;a} ljifodf ;a}eGbf dxTjk"0F{ dflgg] ;dfrf/sf ljifon] klxnf] k]h kfO/x]sf 5g\ . cvaf/df t:jL/sf] k|of]u a9]sf] 5 eg] 6]lnlehgdf visual v]nfpg] rng a9]sf] 5 . cem} g]kfn 6]lnlehgdf g]tfn] af]n]sf] d'v xlNnG5 / g]tfsf] efif0f news reader n] ul//x]sf] kfOG5 . To:t} /]l8of]df klg spot sound /flvg yflnPsf] kfOG5 . klqsfdf sf6'[gn] /fd|f] :yfg kfpg yfn]sf 5g\ .  media n] follow ug'{kg]{ ljifodf follow up u/]sf] b]lvGg . /fhgLlts ljifoj:t'dfly eg] ha/h:tL follow up nflbPsf] kfOG5 . hj/h:tL tof/ ePsf ;dfrf/sf] dfq cem} klg clws 5 . subjective ;dfrf/n] a9L :yfg kfO/x]sf 5g\ . News df research sf] sdL 5 . sponsor programme df slxNo} negative s'/f b]lvGg .

Professionalism M ;du|?kdf a9]sf] 5 . Field reporting df ;'wf/ ePsf] 5 . 7"nf] nufgLdf kflIfs / ;fKtflxs klqsf k|sfzg ePsf sf/0f klg :yfnut l/kf]{6 / vf]hljgsf ;dfrf/n] :yfg lng yfn]sf 5g\ . professionalism leq ljljwtfsf] eg] cem} vfrf] 5 . x/]s s'/fnfO{ generalise ug]{ kl/kf6Lsf] cem} cGTo ePsf] 5}g . Publisher sf] e"ldsf dxTjk"0f{ x'g'kg]{ ljifodf gePsf] h:tf] b]lvG5 . specialisation sf] cjwf/0ff cfPklg ljsl;t x'g eg] ;s]sf] 5}g . Reporter b]lv editor ;Ddn] cfk\mgf] :jfy{ cg';f/ cgfjZos gate keeping ul//x]sf 5g\ .

Opinion M cvaf/sf] ;+Vof ;+u} ljrf/ k[i7n] klg dxTjk"0f{ :yfg kfPsf] 5 . n]Vg klg xb};Dd 5'6 5 . ;Dkfbs / k|sfzs afx]s b]zsf ;Ddflgt / clt ;Ddflgt ju{ lj?4 klg n]Vg aGb]h 5}g . ;DkfbsLo k[i7 / n]vnfO{ 7"n} :yfg lbOPsf] 5 . kf7ssf] kqn] klg /fd|f] :yfg kfpg yfn]sf] 5 . editorial diversity eg] sd} kfOG5 . /fhwfgL afx]ssf ;dfrf/df ;DkfbsLo d'l:sn}n] tof/ x'g] u/]sf] b]lvG5 . ljifout cfwf/df klg /fhgLlts ljifosf ;DkfbsLo xfjL /x]sf] kfOG5 . ljz]ifu/L feature x¿ h:t} daily column, articles, supplement pages cfbL k|sflzt x'g yfn]sf 5g\ . radio n] news and current affairs eg]/ radio magazine lbg] u/]sf] 5 . t/ g]kfnsf /]l8of] cvaf/df g} lge{/ ePsf] kfOG5 . g]kfnsf sd} ;Dkfbsn] v]ns'b jf lj1fg k|ljlw a'e\m5g\ . To;}n] sd} ;DkfbsLo cfp“5 To:tf ljifodf .

Questining the media

rf}yf] c+u elgg'sf] sf/0f media powerful /xg' tyf watchdog of society ePsf]n] xf] . o; cy{df media sf] role society nfO{ motivate, inform, educate……… ug]{ xf] . t/ media n] To; cg';f/ sfd u/]sf] kfOGg .

dfcf]jfbL leqsf k|fjlws s'/f

;'Gbf /f]rs g} nfU5, ev{/ ev{/ dfcf]jfbLdf k|j]z u/]sf] dfG5] l7ªu pleP/ a9f] km'lt{nf] :Jf/df eGb} hfG5, æof] t k|fjlws s'/f xf] sfd/]8 †Æ cln dflyNnf] :t/sf g]tf;“u s'/f u¥of] ls pxL zAb bf]xl/G5, …k|fjlws s'/fÚ . of] …k|fjlwsÚ n] lkmN8 hf“bfv]l/ olt;Dd x}/fgL kf5{ ls cln a9L hfGg vf]Hof] eg] hf;';sf] u'yf;d]t klx/fOG5 . o:t} cg'ej utjif{ /f]Nkf hf“bfv]l/ eof] . Tof] Psk6s dfq} xf]Og, y'k|} k6s ef]luof] .

(Source : Rishikesh Dahal lecture note)